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THE  J.  PAUL  GEITY  MUSEUM  LIBRARY 


THE 


TINMAN'S  MANUAL 


AND 


BUILDER'S 


AND 


MECHANIC'S   HANDBOOK, 


DESIGNED    FOR 

Tinmen,  Japanners,  CopperBmitlis,  Engineers,  Mechanics,  Builders,  lilill- 

wriglits.  Smiths,  Masons,  Carpenters,  Joiners,  Slaters,  Plasterers, 

Painters,  Glaziers,  Pavers,   Plumbers,   Surveyors,  Oraugers,  &e.,  &c.;  with 

Compositions  and  Receipts  for  other  useful  and  important  purposes  in 

the  Practical  Arts. 


By  I.    R.    BUTTS, 


Author  of  the  "  United  States  Bushiess  Man's  Law  Cabinet,"  "  Business  Man's 
Law  Library  ;"  "  Merchant's  and  Shipmaster's  Manual  and  Shipbuild- 
er's and  Sailmaker's   Assistant,"  &c.,  &c. 


SECOKTID     I3r>ITI03Sr. 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED    BY    I.    R.    BUTTS    &    CO. 

CORNER    OF    SCHOOL   AND    WASHINGTON    STREET, 
Over    Ticliiior    &;    ^fields'    Boolsstore. 

1861. 

7 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Concpress,  in  the  year  18C0,  by  I.  R.  Butts,  in  the 
Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


IHi  J.  PAUL  GETTY  ONTHR 
UBRAKY 


PREFACE 


The  present  work  is  offered  to  Tinmen,  Builders,  Mechanics,  and 
Engineers,  as  a  useful  manual  of  reference,  and  information. 

The  first  part  of  the  work  containing  Rules,  Diageams  and  Tables, 
will  be  found  very  useful  to  Tinmen. 

Mr.  Truesdell  who  has,  for  many  years,  used  the  Diagrams  pre- 
pared by  him  for  this  work,  now  offers  them  to  the  public  with  every 
confidence. 

The  Receipts  for  Japans,  Varnishes,  Cements,  ^c.,  were  taken 
from  "Ure's  Dictionary,"  "  Cooley's  Cyclopedia,"  "  Muspratt's 
Chemisti'y,"  and  other  valuable  publications. 

The  sources  from  which  most  of  the  materials  relating  to  Building, 
Mechanics,  and  Engineering  have  been  derived,  are  "  Grier's 
Mechanic's  Calculator,"  "Templeton'a  Workshop  Companion," 
"The  Engineer's  and  Contractor's  Pocket-book,"  "  Adcock's  En- 
gineer," "Smeaton's  Builder's  Companion,"  and  "Lowndes's 
Engineer's  Handbook,"  which  renders  this  portion  of  the  work 
deserving  of  the  utmost  confidence. 


LETTER    FROM    L.    W.    TRUESDELL. 
Mr.  Butts, — 

Dear  Sir, — If  I  may  be  permitted  to  comment  upon 
the  first  part  of  your  book,  I  would  like  to  point  out  to  Tinmen  the 
value  of  the  Diagrams  which,  a  few  years  ago,  could  not  have  been 
purchased  at  any  price  ;  but  as  they  are  now  to  be  published,  and 
sold  at  a  low  price,  I  am  confident  they  will  be  bought  by  every  Tin- 


4  PREFACE. 

man,  for  I  know,  by  experience,  the  perplexities  to  which  they  are 
often  subjected  from  the  want  of  them. 

With  these  Directions  and  Diagrams,  the  Tinman  will  be  enabled 
to  cut  a  Right-Anglcd  or  Circular  Elbow  of  any  size,  in  a  few  min- 
utes, and  produce  as  perfect  a  mitre  joint  as  can  be  made  ;  also, 
patterns  for  Flaring  vessels,  of  any  size  or  flare.  Envelopes  for  Cones, 
Pyramid  Cakes,  Covers  for  Oval  Dishes  and  Boilers,  Funnel-shaped 
Covers  for  Pails,  Breasts  for  Cans,  Lips  for  Measures  of  any  size,  &c.* 

When  about  to  make  a  copy  from  these  diagrams  the  person  should 
proviile  himself  with  a  sheet  of  paper  or  tin-plate,  and  strictly  follow 
the  directions  given. 

Suppose^  for  example,  that  he  is  about  to  copy  Fig.  1,  the  directions 
are,  first,  from  the  centre  C  describe  a  circle  AB.  Having  described 
the  circle  AB,  next,  place  the  corner  of  the  square  on  the  centre  C,  and 
draw  the  lines  CD  and  CE  ;  then  draw  the  chord  DE. 

When  the  Tinman  has  become  familiar  with  the  diagrams,  he  will 
find  them  simple  and  convenient,  and  be  better  qualified  to  undertake 
work  of  a  difficult  character.  If  an  Elbow  at  right-angles,  of  ten  or 
fifteen  inches  diameter,  should  be  reiiuirod,  with  the  directions  and 
diagrams  before  him,  he  could  cut  it  out  in  a  few  minutes  ;  and  so 
with  a  curved  elbow  of  any  diameter,  a  semicircle,  or  an  ellipses- 
shaped  dish  of  any  size.  But  without  a  rule  or  pattern  it  would  be 
a  difficult  and  troublesome  undertaking. 

Having  by  experience  proved  the  correctness  and  usefulness  of 
these  Diagrams,  I  can  confidently  recommend  them  to  all  persons 
engaged  in  the  manufiicture  of  Tin  Ware. 


L.    W.    TRUESDELL. 


OwEGO,  N.  Y.  Sept.  23,  18G0. 


EXTRACT    OF    A    LETTER    FROM    A    TINMAN. 

Mr.  Butts,— 

Dear  Sib,  —  "Your  •  Tinman^ s  ManuctV  strikes 
me  as  being  nearer  what  we  want  in  our  business,  than  anything  I 
have  ever  seen, — and  I  have  examined  every  thing  of  the  kind  I  have 
been  able  to  find.  The  best  we  have  been  able  to  do  has  been  to  jiick 
up  what  ideas  we  could  from  works  on  Geometry  and  Building,  and 
work  out  what  rules  we  could  from  them.  I  have  often  wondered 
why  some  person  did  not  umlertake  just  what  you  have  done.  This 
work  of  yours  supplies  just  the  want  that  every  thinking  man  who 
works  at  the  business  has  felt,  even  from  liis  first  start ;  and  the  want 
is  still  more  sensibly  felt  as  he  grows  older,  and  finds  how  much  there 
is  to  learu." 


'  In  Tinman's  Diagrams  the  allowance  for  locks  is  always  omiiied. 


CONTENTS. 


RULES  AND   DIAGRAMS    FOR   WORKERS   IN   TIN,   SHEET 
IRON    AND    COPPER. 


Page. 

Manufacture  of  Tin  Plate 12 

Quality  of  Tin  Plate 14 

CIRCLES. 

To  find  the  Circumference 'of  any 
Diameter 15 

To  find  the  Area  of  a  Sector  of  a 
Circle 15 

Proportion  of  Circles  to  enable  ma- 
chinists to  enlarge  or  reduce 
wheels  without  changing  their 
motion 16 

The  Circle  and  its  Sections 27 

To  find  the  centre  of  a  Circle  from 
a  pan  of  the  Circumference 33 

Diameters,  Circumferences,  and 
Areas  of  Circles 41 

CTUNDEKS. 

To  find  the  Contents  in  Gallons  of 
any  Cylindrical  Vessel 38 

Tables  giving  the  Content  in  Gal- 
lons of  Cylinders  from  1  inch  to 
30  feet  Diameter 42 

Table  giving  the  Content  in  Gal- 
lons of  Cans  from  3  inches  to  40 
inches  Diameter 45 

BEVEL   COVEES. 

To  describe  Bevel  Covers  for  Ves- 
sels, or  Breasts  for  Cans 25 

To  describe  Bevel  Covers  for  Ves- 
sels, or  Breasts  for  Cans,  {another 
mode) 32 

To  describe  Covers  for  Pails 25 

ELLIPSES    OR   OVALS. 

To  describe  an  Ellipse 17 

Definition  of  an  Oval, — note 17 

To    describe   an  Ellipse    {another 

mode) 18 

To  find  the  Circumference  of  an 

Ellipse 19 

To  find  the  Area  of  an  Ellipse 19 

To  describe  an  Oval  Boiler  Cover  26 
To  draw  an  Ellipse,  the  transverse 

and  conjugate  Diameters  being 

given,  i.  e.  the  length  and  width  116 
To  draw  an  Ellipse  by  means  of 

two  concentriccircles 117 

1* 


Page- 
ELBOWS. 

To  describe  a  Right  Angled  Elbow  20 
To  describe  a  Straight  Elbow  (old 

method) 21 

To  describe  a  Curved  Elbow 22 

To    describe    a    Straight     Elbow 

(another  inode) 24 

FLARING   VESSELS. 

To  describe  a  Flaring  Vessel  Pat- 
tern, a  Set  of  Patterns  for  a  Py- 
raimd  Cake,  or  an  Envelope  for 

a  Cone 28 

To  describe  a  Cone  or  Frustum.. .  29 
To  strike  the   Side  of  a  Flaring 

Vessel 31 

To  construct  the  Frustum  of  a  Cone    34 
To  strike  out  a  Cone  or  Frustum. .     35 
To  find   the   content  of  a  Cone  . .     35 
To  find  the  Angles  of  a  Frustum  of 
an  inverted  Pyramid,  such  as  a 

Mill  Hopper,  &c 36 

To  find  the  content  of  the  Frustum 
of  a  Cone,  such  as  a  Coflee-pot, 
Bowl,  &c .' 36 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

To  joint  Lead  Plates 23 

Soldering  for  Lead,  Zinc,  Tin,  and 

Pewter 23 

To  joint  Lead  Pipes, 24 

Soldermg  for  Copper 160 

To  describe  a  Lip  to  a  Mea.sure. .  27 

To  describe  a  Cycloid,  or  Curve. .  30 

To  describe  a  Heart 30 

Tinning  Iron 31 

A  good  Solder 33 

Sector,  for  obtaining  Angles 34 

Sector,  definition  of. 34 

Rule  to  find  the  Content  in  Gallons 

of  Frustums  of  Cones 37 

Rule  to  find  the  Content  in  Gallons 

of  any  Cylindrical  Vessel 38 

Table  to  ascertain  ithe  weight  of 
Pipes  of  various  metals,  and  any 

Diameter  required 38 

Table    of  Tin    Plates,    size    and 

weight  per  box 39 

Table  of  Cans,  quantity  and  qual- 
ity of  Tin  required  for  2J  to  125 

gallons 39 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Weight  of  a  cylindrical  and  cubic 
inch,  cubic  foot  and  gallon  ot 
AValer 40 

Decimal  Equivalents  to  the  frac- 
tional parts  of  a  Gallon  or  an  Inch    40 

Tables  containing  the  Diamciers, 
Circumferences  and  Areas  of 
Circles 42 

Tables  giving  the  Diameters  and 
Circumferences  of  Circles 1~1 

Tables  to  ascertain  the  weight  of 
Lead  Pipes 139 

Capacity  of  Cans  in  Gallons  from 
3  inches  to  40  inches  in  Diameter    45 

New  Tinning  Process 40 


rage. 
Crj'slallizing  Tin  Plate,  how  per- 
formed      46 

Tinnir.g  Vessels  of  Brass  or  Copper    46 

Kustilien's  .Metal  for  Tinning 46 

Instruments  used  in  Drawing. .. .  101 
Composition  of  Britannia  Metal  for 

Spouts,  Registers,  Spoons,  &c. .  91 
Composition  of  Britannia  Melal  for 

Lamps,   Pillars,    Handles,    and 

Castings 92 

Solder  for  Britannia  "Ware 91 

Lacker  for  Tin  Plate 73  &  94 

Solder,  Tinman's 96 

Definitions  of  Arithmetical  Signs 

used  in  this  work 110 


RECEIPTS   FOR   THE   USE 
BUILDERS, 

JAPANNING   AND   VAUNISHINO. 

Directions  for  Jai)anning 

White  Japan  Grounds— Gum  Copal 

Black  Grounds— Black  Japan 

Brunswick  Black  — Blue  Japan 
Grounds  —  Scarlet  Japan  —  Yel- 
low    Grounds  —  Green    Japan 

Grounds 

Orange  Colored  Grounds— Purple 
Japan  Grounds  —  Black  Japan- 
Japan  Black  for  Leather — Trans- 
parent Japan — Japanners'  Copal 

Varnish 

Tortoise  Shell  Japan— Painting 
Japan  Work  —  Japanning  Old 
Tea-trays— Japan  Finishing. . . . 

TARNISHES — MISCELLANEOUS. 

Substances  employed  for  making 

Varnishes 

Choice  of  Linseed  Oil 

CIIIEF   RESINS   EMPLOYED   IN 
MAKING    VARNISH. 

Amber— Anime— Benzoin  —  Colo- 
phony— Copal 

Dammara— Llimi — Lac — Mastic — 
Saiidarach 

Turpenline  —  Alcoliol  —  Naphtlia 
anil  Meihylated  Spirit  of  Wine- 
Spirit  Varnishes 

Essence  Varnishes— Oil  Varnialica 
— Lacker 

VARNISHES. 

Copnl  Varnishes  {six  hinth) 

Copal  Varnishes  {three  hhnts)  Cab- 
inet Varniili— Table  Varnish— 
Coiniiion  Table  Varnish — Copal 
Varnish  for  Inside  Work 

Copal  Polish— While  Spirit  Var- 
nisli— White  Hard  Spirit  Var- 
oibhes  —While  Vurnish 


OP   JAPANNERS,  VARNISHERS, 
MECHANICS,  &c. 

Soft  Brilliant  Varnish 62 

Brown  Hard  Spirit  Varnishes— To 
prepare  a  Varnish  for  Coating 
Metals  —  Varnish  for  Iron  and 
Steel,  for  Iron  Work,  Black  for 
Iron  Work,  Bronze  for  Statuary    63 

Amber  Varnishes,  Black,  Pale, 
Hard— Black  Varnish 64 

Varnish  for  certain  parts  of  Car- 
riages, Coaches,  Mahogany,  for 
Cabinet  IMakers— Cement  Var- 
nish for  water-tight  Luting— The 
Varnish  of  Watin  for  GiUk-d  Ar- 
ticles—Oak Varnish— Varnish 
for  Wood-work— Dark  Varnish 
for  light  AV^ood-work 65 

Varnish  for  Instruments,  for  W'ood 
Toys  of  Spa,  for  Furniture— To 
French  Polish 66 

Furniture  Polishes,  Gloss,  Cream, 
Oils,  Pastes— Etching  Varnishes    67 

Varnish  for  Engraving,  Maps,  to 
fix  Engravings  or  Lithographs  on 
Wood,  I  for  Oil  Paintings  and 
Lithograplis,  lor  Paintings  and 
Pictures- Milk  of  AVax 68 

Crj-stal  Varnishes,  Italian — AVater 
Varnish  for  Oil  Paintings- Var- 
nish for  Paper-hangings,  Book- 
binders, Cordwork 69 

Varnish  for  Printers  —  for  Brick 
walls— Mastic  Varnishes j^lndia 

Rublu-r  Varnishes 70 

Black  Varnish  for  Harness— Boil- 
ed Oil  or  Linseed  Oil  Varnish— 

Dammar  Varnish 71 

Common  Varnish  —  .Waterproof 
Varnishes  — Varnishes  for   Bal- 


49 
50 
51 


52 


53 


54 


60 


01 


62 


loons.  Gas  Bags,  ic— Gold  Var- 
nisli  —  Wainscot  Varnish  for 
House  Painting  and  Japanning 

LACKERS. 

Gold  Lacker— Red  Spirit  Lacker- 
Pale  Brass   Lacker— Lacker  for 


72 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Tin  —  Lacker  Varnish  —  Deep 
Gold   Colored   Lacker — Lackers 
for  Pictures,  IMetal,  Wood,  or 
Leather 73 

CEMENTS. 

Armenian,  or  Diamond  Cement. .  74 
Cements  for  mending-  Glass  Ware  74 
Cement  for  Slone-vvare— Iron-Rust 
Cement — for  making-  Architectu- 
ral Ornaments — Varley's  Mastic 
— Electrical  and  Chemical  Appa- 
ratus Cement 75 

Cements  for  Iron  Tubes,  Boilers, 
Ivory,  Mother  of  Pearl,  Holes  in 
Castings,  Coppersmiths  and  En- 
gineers, Plumbers,  Bottle- corks, 

China  and  Leather 76 

Cements  for  Marble,  Marble--work- 
ers,  Coppersmiths,  Glass,  mend- 
ing Iron  Pots  and  Pans,  Cisterns 

and  Casks 77 

Cements  for  mending  Fractured 
Bodies  of  all  kinds,  for  Cracks  in 
"Wood,  joining  Metals  and  Wood, 
for  fastening  Brass  to  Glass  Ves- 
sels, Blades,  and  Files — Gas-Fit- 
ter's Cement— Cement  Paint. ...     78 

builders'  cemexts. 

Cements  for  Terraces,  Roofs,  Re- 
servoirs, Fronts  of  Houses,  &c.. .    79 

Cements  for  Brick  Walls,  Seams, 
and  Tile  roofs SO 

Coarse  Sluff. SO 

Parker's  Cement— Hamelein's  Ce- 
ment—  Plaster  in  imitation  of 
Marble — Scagliola 81 

Maliha,  or  Greek  Mastic  —  Fine 
Stuff— Stucco   for   Inside  Walls    82 

Higgins's  Stucco  —  Gauge  Stuff- 


Page. 

Composition  —  Foundations    of 

Buildings 83 

Concrete  Floors — Fite-proof  Com- 
position      84 

RECEIPTS. 

To  Polish  Wainscot  and  Mahoga- 
any — Imitation  of  Mahogany — 
Furniture  Varnish — To  make 
Glass  and  Stone  Paper 85 

Whitewash  —  Paint  for  Coating 
AVire  "Work — To  Bleach  Sponge 
— Lac  Varnish  for  Vines—  Razor 
Paste  —  Leather  Varnish  —  To 
keep  Tires  Tight  on  Wheels 86 

To  Cut  Glass  —  Prepared  Liquid 
Glue — Marine  Glue —  Paste  for 
Envelopes — Dextrine,  or  British 
Gum — Gum  Mucilage 87 

Flour  Paste  —  Sealing  Wax  for 
Fruit  Cans— Fusible  Metal— Me- 
tallic Cement 83 

Artificial  Gold — Or-mulo — Blanch- 
ed Copper — Browning  Gun  Bar- 
rels— Silvering  Powder  for  Coat- 
ing Copper 89 

Alloys  for  Journal  Boxes — Bells 
of  Clocks — Tools — Cymbals  and 
Gongs — Solder  for  Steel  Joints — 
Files — To  prevent  Tools  from 
Rusting — Axle-Grease- to  Gal- 
vanize—Soft Gold  Solder 90 

RECEIPTS   AND  COMPOSITIONS. 

Nearly  200  Compositions  for  Me- 
chanists, Iron  and  Brass  Found- 
ers, Turners,  Tinmen,  Copper- 
smiths, Dentists,  Finishers  of 
Brass,  German  Silver,  Britan- 
nia, and  other  useful  purposes  in 
the  Practical  Arts 91 


MECHANICAL    DEAWING. 

Instruments  used  in  Drawing 101  I  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Perspec- 

The  Sector' 103        live 


105 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


Definition  of  Arithmetical  Signs. .  110 
PROBLEMS. 

To  find  the  Circumference  of  a  Di- 
ameter      15 

To  find  the  area  of  a  Sector 15 

To  find  the  Proportion  of  Circles 
by  which  to  enlarge  or  reduce 
Wheels  without  changing  their 
motion 16 

To  find  the  various  and  proper  Di- 
mensions of  Materials  whereby 
to  construct  Hipped  Roofs,&c.. .    36 


To  find  the  Centre  of  a  Circle  from 
a  part  of  the  Circumference 33 

The  Circle  and  its  Sections 27 

Sector,  for  obtaining  Angles 34 

To  inscribe  an  Equilateral  Trian- 
gle within  a  given  Circle Ill 

Within  a  given  Circle  to  inscribe  a 
Square 112 

Within  a  given  Circle  to  inscribe  a 
regular  Pentagon 112 

Within  a  given  Circle  to  describe 
a  regular  Hexagon 113 

To  cut  off  the  Corners  of  a  given 


8 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Square,  so  as  to  form  a  regular 
Octagon 113 

To  divide  a  given  Line  into  any 
Number  of  Parts,  which  Parts 
shall  be  in  the  same  Proportion 
to  each  other  as  the  Parts  of 
some  other  given  line,  whether 
those  parts  are  equal  or  unequal  114 

On  a  given  Line  to  draw  a  Poly- 
gon of  any  Number  of  Sides,  so 
that  that  Line  shall  be  one  side 
of  a  Polygon 114 

OF   DRAWIXG   CUEVED   LINES. 

To  draw  an  Ellipse  with  the  Rule 
and  Compasses,  the  transverse 
and  conjugate  Diameters  being 
given  ;  i.  c.  the  length  and  width  IIG 

To  draw  an  Ellipse  by  means  of 


Page, 
two  Concentric  Circles - 116 

To  draw  an  Ellipse  of  any  length 
and  width ■ % 18 

To  find  the  Circumference  &.  Area 
of  an  Ellipse 19 

Other  methods  for  describing  an 
Ellipse 117 

To  find  the  Centre  and  the  two 
Axes  of  an  Ellipse 118 

To  draw  a  flat  Arch  by  the  inter- 
section of  Lines,  liaving  the 
Opening  and  Spring  or  Rise 
given 119 

To  find  the  Form  or  Curvature  of 
a  raking  Moulding  that  shall 
unite  correctly  with  a  level  one  119 

To  find  the  Form  or  Curvature  of 
the  Return  in  aji  open  or  broken 
Pediment 120 


EPITOME    OF    MENSURATION. 


Ofthe   Circle,  Cylinder,    Sphere, 

Zone,  &c 

Of  the   Square,   Rectangle,  Cube 
Surfaces  and  solidities  of   Bodies 

Of  Triangles,  Polygons,  &c 

Of  Ellipses,  Cones,  Frustums,  &c. 

INSTKUMEJfTAL  AEITHMETIC. 

Utility  ofthe  Slide  Rule • 

Numeration 


123 
123 
124 
124 
125 


125 

126 


To  Multiply  Numbers  by  the  Rule  126 
To  divide  Numbers  upon  the  Rule  126 
Proporlion  or  Rule  of  Three  Direct  127 
Square  &.  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers  127 

Rule  of  Three  Inverse 127 

Mensuration  of  Surface 128 

Mensuration  of  Solidity  and   Ca- 
pacity    129 

Power  of  Steam  Engines 130 

OfEngme  Boilers 130 


RULES   AND  TABLES   FOR  ARTIFICERS  AND  ENGINEERS. 


Measurement  of  Bricklayer's  work  132 
Table  to  find  the  number  of  Bricks 

in  any  given  Wall 133 

Measurement  of  AVells  4.  Cisterns  133 
Measurement  of  Mason's  AV'ork..  133 
Measurement  of  Carpenter's  and 

Joiner's  AVork 134 

Table  of  different  sized  Nails  to  alb  135 
Table  of  different  sized  Sashes,  &c  13G 
Measurement  of  Slater's  AVork.. .   136 

Table  of  American  Slates 136 

Table  of  Imported  Slates 137 

Measurement  of  Plasterer's  AVork  137 
Measurement  of  Paver's  AVork. . . .  137 
Measurement  of  Painter's  AVork...  137 
Measurement  of  Glazier's  AVork. .  138 
Table   of    Size    and    Number    of 

Lights  to  the  100  Square  Feet...   138 
Measurement  of  Plumber's  AVork  138 
Table  ol  Sizes  and  Weight  of  Pa- 
tent Lead  Pipe 139 

Table  of  Boston  Lead  Pipe 139 

Table  of  Comparative  Strength  and 
Weight  of  Ropes  and  Chains...  139 

8TUENGTU    OF   MATERIALS. 

Dcfinilinn* 140 

Table  of  Tenacities,  Resistance  to 


Compression,    &c,,   of   various 

Bodies 140 

Resistance  to  Lateral  Pressure.  . .  140 

Table  of  Practical  Data 141 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  a  beam 
of  Timber   to   sustain  a  given 

AVeight 141 

To  determine  the  absolute  strength 
of  a  Rectangular  Beam  of  Tim- 
ber   141 

To  determine  the  dimensions  of  a 
Beam  with  a  given  degree  of  de- 
flection    142 

Cast-iron  Beams  of  strongest  sec- 
lion 142 

Of  Wooden  Beams,  Trussed 142 

Absolute  Strength  of  Cast-iron 
Beams 142 

Dimensions  for  Cast-iron  Beams..  143 
To  find  the  AVeight  of  a  Cast-iron 

Beam- 143 

Resistance  to  flexure  by  vertical 

pressure 143 

To  determine  the  dimensions  for  a 

Column  of  Timber 144 

Resistance  of  Bodies  to  Twisting  144 
Relative  strength  of  Metals  to  re- 
sist Torsion 144 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Breaking  strength  of  a  Bar  of 
Wioughl  Iron 145 

Lateral  strength  of  Wrought  Iron 
as  compared  with  Cast-iron 145 

Load  on  Bridges,  Floors,  Roofs, 
and  Beams  145 

Strength  of  Beams,  Bar  of  Wood, 
Stoiie,  Metal,  Ropes,  Tubes,  or 
Hollow  Cylinders 146 

Models  proportioned  to  Machines  14G 

Metals  arranged  according  to  their 
Strength...". 147 

Woods  arranged  according  to    do.  147 

Strength  of  Cords,  &c 147 

Strength  ofReclaugular  and  Round 
Timber 148 

Table  of  the  Cohesive  Power  of 
Bars  of  .Metal 148 

Relative  Strength  of  Cast  and  Mal- 
leable Iron 148 

STRENGTH    OF   BEAMS. 

Solid,  Rectangular,  Rovnd,  Hollow  149 
To  find  the  breaking  Weight  in  lbs.  149 
To  find  the  proper  Size  for  any  giv- 
en purpose 150 

Strength  of  Cast-iron  with  Feath- 
ers or  Flanges 150 

Wrought  Iron  Beams  and  Girders  151 

Hollow  Girders 152 

To  find  the  Strength  of  a  Round 

Girder- 152 

To  find  the  Strength  of  any  Beam  152 

SOLID    COLUMNS. 

To  find  the  Strength  of  any  Wro't 
Iron  Column  with  Square   ends  153 

To  find  the  Strength  of  Round  Col- 
umns exceeding  25  diameters  in 
Length 154 

Tables  of  Powers  for  the  Diame- 
ters and  Lengths  of  Columns. . .  154 

HOLLOW   COLUMNS. 

Square  Columns  of  Plate  Iron  riv- 
etted 155 

To  find  the  Strength  of  any  Hol- 
low Wrought  Iron  Column  ....  355 

Round  Columns  of  Plate  Iron  ....  156 


CKANE. 
To  find  the  Strain  on  the  Post. . . 


150 


COLD    WATER   PUMP. 

To  find  tne  proper  Size,  under  any 
circumstances,  capable  of  sup- 
plying t-\vice  the  quantity  ordina- 
rily used  in  injection 156 

FANS. 

Velocity  of  Fans 157 

The  best  Velocity  of  Circumfer- 
ence for  different  Densities..,,  157 


Page. 
To  find  the  Horse  Power  required 

for  any  Fan 157 

To  find  ihe   Density  to  be  attained 

with  any  given  Fan 157 

To  find  Ihe   Quantity  of  Air  that 

\vill  be   delivered  by  any  Fan, 

the  Density  being  known 158 

FRICTION. 
From  Mr.  Rennie's  Experiments..  158 

CENTRIFUGAIi     FORCE 
In  terms  of  Weight 


158 


PEDEST.'VI,  AND  BRACKET. 


Thickness  of  cover,  diameter,  dis- 
tance, solid  metal,  &c 159 

TEMPERING. 

For  Lancets,  Razors,  Penknives, 
Scissors,  Hatchets,  Saws,  Chis- 
els, Springs,  &c 159 

CASE   HARDENING 

Articles,  how  Case  Hardened. . . .  159 
To  Case  Harden  Cast  Iron 160 

HEAT. 

Effects  of  Heat  on  Metals,  &c.,  at 
certain  Temperatures 160 

SOLDERING. 

For  Joints,  Copper,  Iron  and  Brass  160 

BORING. 

The  best  speed  for  boring  Iron, 
drilling,  and  turning 161 

BRASS. 

Compositions  of  Brass 161 

Brass  Castings,  mode  of  Casting..  161 

ROPE. 

To  find  the   Breaking  Weight  of 

Tarred  Hemp  Rope 162 

To  find  the  AVeight  per  Fathom  of 

Rope  or  Tarred  Cordage 163 

To  find  the  "Weight  per  Fathom  of 

Tarred  Hawser  or  Manilla  Rope  163 
To  find  the  AVeisht  per  Fathom  of 

Hawser  laid  Manilla 163 

WEIGHT    OF    CASTINGS. 

To  find  the  Weight  of  any  Casting  163 
To  find  the  AVeighl  from  the  Areas  163 

To  find  the  AVeight  in  cwts 163 

AVeight  of  Boiler  Plates 163 

To  find  the  Weight  of  Boiler  Plates  164 

CONTINUOUS   CIRCULAR   MOTION. 

AVhen  Time  is  not  taken  into  Ac- 
count    164 


10 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

To  find  the  number  of  Revolutions 
of  the  lasl  lo  one  of  llie  first,  in  a 
train  of  Wheels  and  Pinions. . . .  164 

When  Time  must  be  regarded. . . .  165 

The  distance  between  the  Centres 
and  Velocities  of  two  AVheels  be- 
ing given,  to  find  their  Diameters  165 

To  determine  the  Proportion  of 
Wheels  for  Screw-cutting  by  a 
Lathe 166 

Table  of  Change  AVheels  for  Screw 
cutting;  the  leading  Screw  be- 
ing half  inch  pitch,  or  contain- 
ing 2  threads  in  an  inch 167 

Table  by  which  to  determine  the 
Number  of  Teeth,  or  Pitch  of 
Small  Wheels,  or  what  is  called 
the  Manchester  Principle 167 

Strength  of  the  Teeth  of  Cast  Iron 
Wheels  at  a  given  Velocity 163 

WHEELS   A>T>   GUDGEONS. 

To  find  size  of  Teeth  necessary  to 
transmit  a  given  Horse  Power. .   163 

To  find  the  Horse  Power  that  any 
Wheel  will  transmit 169 


Page. 

To  find  the  multiplying  Number  for 
any   Wheel 169 

To  find  the  Size  of  Teeth  to  carry 
a  given  Load  in  lbs 169 

■WATEE. 

To  find  the  Quantity  of  Water  that 
will  be  discharged  through  an 
Orifice,  or  Pipe,  in  the  side  or 
bottom  of  a  Vessel 169 

To  find  the  size  of  Hole  necessary 
lo  discharge  a  given  Quantity  of 
Water  under  a  given  Head 170 

To  find  the  Height  necessary  to 
discharge  a  "fiven  Quantity  thro' 
a  given  Orifice 170 

The  Velocity  of  AVater  issuing 
from  an  Orifice  in  the  side  or  bot- 
tom of  a   Vessel  ascertained....   170 

To  find  the  Quantity  of  AVater  that 
will  run  through  any  Orifice,  the 
top  of  which  IS  level  with  the 
Surface  of  AA'ater,  as  over  a 
Sluice  or  Dam 170 

To  find  the  Time  in  which  a  Vessel 
will  empty  itself  through  a  given 
Orifice 170 


MECHANICAL    TABLES    FOR    THE    USE    OF    OPERATIVE 
SmiHS,    MILLWRIGHTS,    AND    ENGINEERS. 


Tables  of  the  Diameters  and  Cir- 
cumferences of  Circles 171 

Observations  on  do 177 

Circumferences    of   Angled    Iron 

Hoops —  outside 179 

Circumferences    of    Angled    Iron 

Hoops— inside 180 

Observations  on  the  above  Tables  181 
Tables  of  the  AVeight  of  100  lbs.  of 
Ship  Spikes,  Hatch  Nails,  Hook 
Heads,  Dock  Nails,  IJoat  Spikes, 
Railroad  Spikes  &.  Horse  Shoes  182 
Coppers,  dimensions  and  weight  of  183 

Copper  Tubing,  weight  of 183 

Brass,  Copper,  Steel  and  Lead, 
weight  of  a  Fool  from  .\  to  3  inch- 
es Round  or  Square Ift3 

Flat  Cast  Iron,  weight  of  a  Fool.. .   181 
Cast  Iron,  AVeight  of  a  Superficial 

Foot,  from   |  to  2  inches  thick.  .   181 
Table  giving  the  AVeight  of  Cast 
Iron,    Copper,    Brass,  and  Lead 
Balls,  from  1  to  12  inch  diameter  184 
Cast    Iron,   weight  of  a    Fool   in 

lenglli  of  .'Square  and  Round.  . . .  185 
Rtcel,  weight  of  a  Foot  of  Flat.  . . .  lt-5 
Parallel  Angle  Iron,  of  equal  sides  180 


Parallel  Angle  Iron,  unequal  sides  186 
Taper  Angle  Iron,  of  equal  sides. .  186 
Parallel  T  Iron,  unequal  width  and 

depth 187 

Parallel  T  Iron,  of  equal  depth  and 

width 187 

Taper  T   Iron 187 

Tableof  AA'cighlof  Sash  Iron 188 

Table  of  AVeight  of  Rails,  top  and 

bottom  Tables 188 

Table  of  AA''eight  of  Temporary  do.  188 
Tables  showing  the   AVeight  of  a 
lineal  Foot  of  Malleable  Reclan- 
pular,  or  Flat  Iron,  from  ,V  lo  3 
mches  in   thickness 189 

ELASTIC   FORCE   OF   STEAM. 

Table  of  the  Elastic  Properties  of 
Steam  and  corresponding  tempe- 
rature of  Water 194 

Production  it  Properties  of  Steam  195 

Table  of  the  Elastic  Force  of  Steam 
the  Pressure  of  the  Atinospherc 
not  being  included 195 

Table  of  the  Consumption  of  Coal 
per  hour  in    Steamers 196 

Evaporative  Power  of  Coal 196 


GAUGER'S    RULES    AND    TABLES. 


To  Gauge  Conks,  U.  Stales  Gallons  201 
To  Gauge  Casks,  Imperial   Galloiiri  202 
To  Ullage,  or  fiii<l  the  contents  of 
Casks  partly  filled 203 


Tables  of  the  Comparnlive  Value 
of  Imperial  and  riiiled  Slates 
Measures 20.3 

Miscellaneous  Tables 204 


RULES    WITH    DIAGRAMS 


FOR    WORKERS    IN 


TIN,    SHEET    IRON    AND    COPPER, 


AND 


TABLES   GIVING   THE   DIAMETERS,    CIRCUMFERENCES, 
AND  AREAS   OF    CIRCLES, 


AND 


THE  CONTENTS  OF  EACH  IN  GALLONS. 


MANUFACTURE    OF    TIN   PLATE. 


"  The  different  processes  of  the  manufacture  of  tin  plate  may  be  de- 
scribed most  properly  in  seven  distinct  stages.  The  first  begins  with 
the  bars  of  iron  which  form  the  plate  ;  the  last  terminates  with  an 
account  of  the  process  of  tinning  their  surface.  The  description  is 
somewhat  technical  ;  but  a  glance  at  the  following  heads  will  enable 
the  reader  to  comprehend  the  whole  process  : — 

"1.  Rolling  is  the  first  and  most  important  point  requisite  to  the 
production  of  the  lattcn,  or  plates  of  iron,  previous  to  the  operation 
of  tinning  them.  For  this  purpose  the  finest  quality  of  charcoal  iron 
is  invariably  employed,  which,  in  its  commercial  state,  generally 
consists  of  long  flat  bars.  These  are  cut  into  small  squares  averaging 
one-half  an  inch  in  thickness,  which  are  heated  repeatedly  in  a  fur- 
nace, and  arc  repeatedly  passing  through  iron  rollers.  A  convenient 
degree  of  thinness  having  been  obtained,  the  now  extended  plates  are 
"doubled  up,"  heated,  rolled,  opened-out,  heated  and  rolled  again, 
until,  at  length,  the  standard  thickness  of  the  plate  has  been  reached. 

"  2.  Shearing.— X  pair  of  massive  shears  worked  by  machinery,  is 
now  applied  to  the  rugged  edges  of  this  lamellar  formation  of  iron- 
plate.  It  is  cut  into  oblong  squares,  14  inches  by  10,  and  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  single  plate  of  iron,  beautifully  smooth  on  its  surface. 
A  juvenile  with  a  knife  soon  destroys  the  appearance,  however,  and 
eight  plates  are  produced  from  the  slightly  coherent  mass. 

"  3.  Scaling. — This  process  consists  in  freeing  the  iron  surface  from 
its  oxyd  and  scoriae.  After  an  application  of  sulphuric  acid,  a  number 
of  plates,  to  the  extent,  we  shall  say,  of  GOO  or  800,  are  packed  in  a 
cast-iron  box,  which  is  exposed  for  some  hours  to  the  heat  of  a  furnace. 
On  being  opened  the  plates  arc  found  to  have  acquired  a  bright  blue 
steel  tint,  and  to  be  free  from  surface  impurities. 

"  4.  Cold  Rolling.— It  is  impossible  that  the  plates  could  pass 
through  the  last  fiery  ordeal  without  becoming  disfigured.  Tiie  cold 
rolling  process  corrects  this.  Each  plate  is  separately  passed  through 
a  pair  of  hard  polished  rollers,  screwed  tightly  together.  Not  only  do 
the  plates  acquire  from  this  operation  a  high  degree  of  smoothness 


MANUFACTURE    OF    TIN    PLATES.  13 

and  regularity,  but  they  likewise  acquire  the  peculiar  elasticity  of 
hammered  metal.  One  man  will  cold  roll  225,000  plates  in  a  week, 
and  each  of  them  is,  on  an  average,  three  times  passed  through  the 
rollers. 

"  5.  Annealing. — This  process  is  also  a  modern  improvement  on  the 
manufacture  :  600  plates  are  again  packed  into  cast  iron  boxes  and 
exposed  to  the  furnace.  There  is  this  difference  in  the  present  pro- 
cess from  that  of  scaling — that  the  boxes  must  be  preserved  air-tight, 
otherwise  the  contained  plates  would  inevitably  weld  together  and 
produce  a  solid  mass.  The  infinitessimal  portion  of  confined  air 
prevents  this. 

"  6.  Pickling. — The  plates  are  again  consigned  to  a  bath  of  diluted 
acid,  till  the  surface  becomes  uniformly  bright  and  clean.  Some 
nice  manipulation  belongs  to  this  process.  Each  plate  is,  on  its  re- 
moval from  the  acid,  subjected  to  a  rigid  scrutiny  by  women,  whose 
vocation  it  is  to  detect  any  remaining  impurity,  and  scour  it  from 
the  surface.  These  multifarious  operations,  it  will  be  seen,  are  all 
preliminary  to  the  last,  and  the  most  important  of  all — that  of  tinning. 
Theoretically  simple,  this  process  is  practically  difficult  ;  and  to  do 
it  full  justice  would  carry  us  beyond  our  limits.  We  shall  however, 
mention  the  principal  features. 

"  7.  Tinning. — A  rectangular  cast  iron  bath,  heated  from  below, 
and  calculated  to  contain  200  or  300  sheets,  and  about  a  tun  of  pure 
block  tin,  is  now  put  in  request.  A  stratum  of  pyreiimatic  fat  floats 
upon  its  surface.  Close  to  the  side  of  this  tin  pot  stands  another  re- 
ceptacle, which  is  filled  with  melted  grease,  and  contains  the  prepared 
plates.  On  the  other  side  is  an  empty  pot,  with  a.  grating  ;  and  last 
of  all  there  is  yet  another  pot,  containing  a  small  stratum  of  melted 
tin.  Let  us  follow  the  progress  of  a  single  plate.  A  functionary 
known  as  the  "  washerman,"  armed  with  tongs  and  a  hempen  brush, 
withdraws  the  plate  from  the  bath  of  tin  wherein  it  has  been  soaking  ; 
and,  with  a  degree  of  dexterity  only  to  be  acquired  by  long  practice, 
sweeps  one  side  of  the  plate  clean,  and  then  reversing  it,  repeats  the 
operation.  In  an  instant  it  is  again  submerged  in  the  liquid  tin,  and 
is  then  as  quickly  transferred  to  the  liquid  gi-ease.  The  peculiar  use 
of  the  hot  grease  consists  in  the  property  it  possesses  of  equalizing 
the  distribution  of  the  tin,  of  retaining  the  superfluous  metal,  and  of 
spreading  the  remainder  equally  on  the  surface  of  the  iron.  Still 
there  is  left  on  the  plate  what  we  may  term  a  salvage  ;  and  this  is 
2 


14  MANUFACTURE    OF    TIN   PLATES. 

finally  removed  by  means  of  the  last  tin  pot,  which  just  contains  the 
necessary  quantity  of  fluid  metal  to  melt  it  off — a  smart  blow  being 
given  at  the  same  moment  to  assist  the  disengagement.  The  "  list- 
mark,"  may  be  observed  upon  every  tin  plate  without  exception. 
We  may  add  here,  that  an  expert  washerman  will  finish  GOOD  metal- 
lic plates  in  twelve  hours,  notwithstanding  that  each  plate  is  twice 
washed  on  both  sides,  and  twice  dipped  into  the  melted  tin.  After 
some  intermediate  operations — for  we  need  not  continue  the  consec- 
utive description — the  plates  are  sent  to  the  final  operation  of  clean- 
ing. For  this  purpose  they  are  rubbed  with  bi-an,  and  dusted  upon 
tables  ;  after  which  they  present  the  beautiful  silvery  appearance  so 
characteristic  of  the  best  English  tin  plate.  Last  of  all  they  reach 
an  individual  called  the  "  sorter,"  who  subjects  every  plate  to  a 
strict  examination,  rejects  those  which  are  found  to  be  defective,  and 
sends  those  which  are  approved  to  be  packed,  300  at  a  time,  in  the 
rough  wooden  boxes,  with  the  cabalistic  signs  with  which  the  most  of 
us  have  been  familiar  since  the  days  of  our  adventures  in  the  back- 
shop  of  the  tinsmith." — [From  the  Builder.'] 


QUALITY     OF     TIN     PLATE. 

The  tests  for  tin  plates  are  ductility,  strength,  and  color  ;  and  to 
possess  these,  the  iron  used  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  all  the 
process  be  conducted  with  care  and  skill.  The  following  conditions 
are  inserted  in  some  specifications,  and  will  serve  to  indicate  the 
strength  and  ductility  of  first-class  tin  plates  :  — 

1st,  They  must  bear  cutting  into  strips  of  a  width  equal  to  ten 
times  the  thickness  of  the  plate,  both  with  and  across  the  fibre,  with- 
out splitting  ;  tlie  strips  must  bear,  while  hut,  licing  bent  upon  a 
mouhl,  to  a  sweep  ecjual  to  four  times  the  width  of  tlie  strip. 

2nd,  While  cold,  the  plates  must  bear  bending  in  a  heading  ma- 
chine, in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  cylinder,  the  diameter  of  which 
shall  at  most  be  C(iual  to  sixty  times  the  thickness  of  the  plate.  In 
these  tests,  the  plate  must  show  neither  flaw  nor  crack  of  any  kind. 


#xir1[muiiti0M  of  giagi'itmsi. 


TO   FIND    THE    CIRCUMFERENCE     OF    ANY    DIAMETER. 

CDrawn  for  this  work  by  L.  W.  Tbuesdell,  Timnan,  Owego,  N.  Y.] 

Fig.  1. 


From  the  centre  C  describe  a  circle  AB,  having  the  required  diam- 
eter ;  then  place  the  corner  of  the  square  at  the  centre  C,  and  draw 
the  lines  CD  and  CE  ;  then  draw  the  chord  DE  :  three  times  the  diam- 
eter added  to  the  distance  from  the  middle  of  the  chord  DFE  to  the 
middle  of  the  subtending  arc  DGE,  will  be  the  circumference  sought. 


TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  THE  SECTOR  OF  A  CIRCLE. 

Rule.  Multiply  the  length  of  the  arc  DGE  by  its  radius  DC, 
and  half  the  product  is  the  area. 

The  length  of  the  arc  DGE  equal  9^  feet,  and  the  radii  CD,  CE, 
equal  7  feet  required  the  area. 

9-5x7  =  66-5  -^  2  =  33-25  the  area. 


16 


PROPORTION  OF    CIRCLES. 


PROPORTION    OF    CIRCLES. 

[Drawn for  this  work  by  L.  W.  Teuksdell,  Tinman,  Owego,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  2. 


To  enable  machinists  to  enlarge  or  reduce  machinery  wheels  with- 
out changing  their  respective  motion. 

First,  describe  two  circles  AB  and  CD  the  size  of  the  largest  wheels 
which  you  wish  to  change  to  a  large  or  small  machine,  with  the 
centre  P  of  the  smaller  circle  CD  on  the  circumference  of  the  large 
one  AB  ;  then  draw  two  lines  LM  and  NO  tangent  to  the  circles  AB 
and  CD,  and  a  line  IK  passing  through  their  centres  P  and  R  ;  then 
if  you  wish  to  reduce  the  machine,  describe  a  circle  the  size  you  wish 
to  reduce  it  to  ;  if  one-half,  for  example,  have  the  centre  Q  one-half 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    ELLIPSE. 


17 


the  distance  from  R  to  S  and  describe  the  circle  EF,  and  on  its  cir- 
cumference T  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  GH,  allowing  their  cir- 
cumferences to  touch  the  tangent  lines  LM  and  NO,  •which  ■will  make 
the  circle  EF  one-half  the  size  of  the  circle  AB,  and  GH  one-half  the' 
size  of  CD  ;  therefore  EF  and  GH  are  in  the  same  proportion  to  each, 
other  as  AB  and  CD. 

If  you  wish  to  reduce  one-third,  have  the  centre  Q  one-third  the 
distance  from  E,  to  S  ;  if  one-fourth  have  the  centre  Q  one-fourth  the 
distance  from  R  to  S,  and  so  on.  This  calculation  may  be  applied 
beyond  the  centre  R  for  enlarging  machine  wheels,  which  will  enable 
you  to  make  the  alteration  without  changing  their  respective  motion., 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    ELLIPSE,  ok  OVAL. 

[Simple  MethodO 

Fig.  3. 


At  a  given  distance,  equal  to  the  required  eccentricity  of  the  ellipse, 
place  two  pins,  A  and  B,  and  pass  a  string,  ACB,  round  them  ; 
keep  the  string  stretched  by  a  pencil  or  tracer,  C,  and  move  the  pencil 
along,  keeping  the  string  all  the  while  equally  tense,  then  will  the 
ellipse  CGLFH  be  described.  A  and  B  are  the  foci  of  the  ellipse, 
D  the  centre,  DA  or  DB  the  eccentricity,  EF  the  principal  axis  or 
longer  diameter,  G  H  the  shorter  diameter,  and  if  from  any  point  L  in 
the  curve  a  line  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  then  will  LK 
be  an  ordinate  to  the  axis  corresponding  to  the  point  L,  and  the  parts 
of  the  axis  EK,  KF  into  which  LK  divides  it  are  said  to  be  the  ab- 
scissae corresponding  to  that  ordinate. 

NOTE. — Oval.  A  curve  line,  the  two  diameters  of  which  are  of  unequal 
lengrth,  and  is  allied  in  form  to  the  ellipse.  An  ellipse  is  that  figure  which  is 
produced  by  cutting  a  cone  or  cylinder  in  a  direction  oblique  to  its  axis,  and 
passing  through  its  sides.  An  oval  may  be  formed  by  joining  different  seg- 
ments of  circles,  so  that  their  meeting  shall  not  be  perceived,  but  form  a  contin- 
uous curve  line.  All  ellipses  are  ovals,  but  all  ovals  are  not  ellipses;  for  the 
Term  oval  may  be  applied  to  all  egg-shaped  figures,  those  which  are  broader  at 
one  end  than  the  other,  as  well  as  those  whose  ends  are  equally  curved. 

2* 


18 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    ELLIPSE. 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    ELLIPSE. 

[Drawn  for  this  work  by  L.W.Truesdell,  Tinman,  Owego,  N.T.] 

O  1"  i  g  i  11  a.  1 . 

Fig.  4. 


To  describe  an  ellipse  of  any  length  and  width,  and  by  it  to  describe 
a  pattern  for  the  sides  of  a  vessel  of  any  flare. 

First  draw  an  indefinite  line  DE  perpendicular  to  the  line  AB,  and 
from  C,  the  point  of  intersection,  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  FO, 
having  the  diameter  equal  to  the  length  of  the  ellipse  ;  from  the 


TO    DESCRIBE   AN  ELLIPSE.  19 

same  centre  C  describe  a  circle  HJ  equal  to  the  -widtli ;  then  describe 
the  end  circles  LK'  and  LK,  as  much  less  than  the  width  as  the  width 
is  less  than  the  length  ;  then  draw  the  lines  MN  and  MN  tangent  to 
the  circles  K'L,  HJ  and  KL  ;  from  the  middle  of  the  line  MN  at  0  erect 
a  perpendicular  produced  until  it  intersects  the  indefinite  line  DE  ; 
fi'om  the  point  of  intersection  P  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  K'HK, 
and  with  the  same  sweep  of  the  dividers  mark  the  point  R  on  the  line 
DE  ;  from  the  point  R  draw  the  lines  RU  and  RV  through  the  points 
K'  and  K  where  the  arc  K'HK  touches  the  end  circles  K'L  and  KL  ; 
then  place  one  foot  of  the  dividers  on  the  point  R  and  span  them  to 
the  point  H,  and  describe  the  arc  Q'HQ,  which  will  be  equal  in  length 
to  the  arc  K'HK  ;  from  the  same  centre  R  describe  the  arc  UWV  the 
width  of  the  pattern  ;  then  span  the  dividers  the  diameter  of  the  end 
circle  KL  ;  place  one  foot  of  the  dividers  on  the  line  RV,  at  point  Q, 
and  the  other  at  Y  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  QT  the  length  of 
the  curve  line  KG,  and  with  the  same  sweep  of  the  dividers  describe 
the  arc  T'Q'  from  tlie  centre  Y'  on  the  line  RU  ;  then  span  the  dividers 
from  Y'  to  U,  and  from  Y'  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  UX,  and  from 
Y  as  a  centre,  deswibe  the  arc  VX,  which  completes  the  description  of 
the  pattern. 

The  more  flare  you  wish  the  pattern  to  have,  the  nearer  the  centre 
point  R  must  be  to  H  ;  and  the  less  flare,  the  further  the  centre  point 
R  must  be  from  H  ;  in  the  same  proportion  as  you  move  the  centre 
R  towards,  or  from  H,  you  must  move  the  centre  Y  towards,  or  from 
Q,  or  which  would  be  the  same  as  spanning  the  dividers  less,  or  greater, 
than  the  diameter  of  the  end  circle  KL. 

TO    FIND   THE    CIRCUMFERENCE    OF    AN    ELLIPSE. 

Rule. — Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  two  diameters  by  3-1416,  and 
the  product  will  be  the  circumference. 

Example. — Suppose  the  longer  diameter  6  inches  and  the  shorter 
diameter  4  inches,  then  6  added  to  4  equal  10,  divided  by  2  equal  5, 
multiplied  by  3'1416  equal  15-7080  inches  circumference. 


TO    FIND    THE    AREA    OF    AN    ELLIPSE. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  longer  diameter  by  the  shorter  diameter,  and 
by  •7854,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

Example. — Required  the  area  of  an  ellipse  whose  longer  diameter 
is  6  inches  and  shcrter  diameter  4  inches? 

6  X  4  X  -7854  =  18-8496,  the  area. 


20 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    RIGHT    ANGLED    ELBOW. 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    RIGHT    ANGLED    ELBOW. 

[Drawn  for  this  work  by  L.  AY.  Truesdell,  Tiuman,  Owcgo,  N.  Y.] 
Origin  O/l  . 

Fig.  5. 


First  construct  a  rectangle  ADEB  equal  in  width  to  the  diameter 
of  the  elbow,  and  tlie  length  equal  to  the  circumference;  tlicn  from 
the  point  J,  the  middle  of  the  line  AB,  draw  the  line  .III,  and  from 
the  point  F,  the  middle  of  tiie  line  AD,  draw  the  line  FG  ;  from  tlio 
point  J  draw  two  diagonal  lines  JD  and  JE  ;  then  span  the  dividers 
80  as  to  divide  one  of  these  diagonal  lines  into  six  equal  parts,  viz. 
J,  L,  0,  T,  0,  V,  E  ;  from  the  point  L  erect  a  perpendicular,  pro- 
duced to  tlie  line  .III  ;  from  the  point  of  contact  M,  as  a  centre, 
describe  the  arc  NJO  for  the  top  of  the  elbow,  and  from  the  points 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    STRAIGHT    ELBOW. 


21 


M'  and  M'  as  centres,  with  the  same  sweep  of  the  dividers,  describe 
the  arcs  NO  and  NO  ;  then  draw  an  indefinite  straight  line  PQ  tan- 
gent to  the  arcs  NO  and  NJ,  having  the  points  of  contact  at  S  and 
S  ;  on  this  tangent  line  erect  a  perpendicular  passing  through  the 
point  N  produced  until  it  intersects  the  line  BE  produced  ;  then  place 
one  foot  of  the  dividers  on  the  point  of  intersection  R  and  span  them 
over  the  dotted  line  to  the  point  T,  and  with  the  dividers  thus  spanned 
describe  the  arcs  TS,  TS,  TS,  and  TS  ;  these  arcs  and  the  arcs  NO, 
NJO,  and  ON  will  be  the  right  angled  elbow  required. 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    STRAIGHT    ELBOW. 

[Old  Method.: 

Fig.  6. 


Mark  out  the  length  and  depth  of  the  elbow,  ABCD  ;  draw  a  semi- 
circle at  each  end,  as  from  AB  and  CD  ;  divide  each  semicircle 
into  eight  parts  ;  draw  horizontal  lines  as  shown  from  1  to  1,  2 
to  2,  &c.  ;  divide  the  circumference  or  length,  ACBD,  into  sixteen 
equal  parts,  and  draw  perpendicular  lines  as  in  figure  ;  draw  a  line 
from  a  to  h  and  from  6  to  c,  and  on  the  opposite  side  from  c?  to  e 
and  e  to/,-  for  the  top  sweep  set  the  dividers  on  /"ouriA  line  from 
top  and  sweep  two  of  the  spaces  ;  the  same  at  the  corner  ;  on 
space  for  the  remaining  sweeps  set  the  dividers  so  to  intersect  in 
the  three  corners  of  the  spaces  marked  X.  The  seams  must  be 
added  to  drawing. 


22 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    CURVED    ELBOW. 


TO    DESCRIBE   A   CURVED  ELBOW. 

[Drawn  for  this  work  by  L.  W.  Tkuesdell,  Tinman,  Owcgo,  N.  T.] 
Ox-iginal. 

Fig.  7. 


;'  ! 
/ 

/ 

/X 

5 

\ 

A^ 

\  , 

y^\\ 

•.- 

^^ 

-^\\^ 

V 

/^\^ 

c 

■ \ 

X 

"■•• 

Fia,  8. 


1        \     >i: 


TO  DESCRIBE  A  CURVED  ELBOW.  23 

Describe  two  circles  TJX  and  V'S,  the  curves  desired  for  the  elbow, 
having  the  distance  from  U  to  V  equal  to  the  diameter  ;  then  divide 
the  circle  V,  W,  R  and  S,  into  as  many  sections  as  desired  ;  then 
construct  a  rectangle,  Fig.  8,  ADEB,  the  width  equal  to  the  -width  of 
one  section  V'W,  Fig.  7,  and  the  length  equal  to  the  circumference  of 
the  elbow  ;  then  span  the  dividers  from  the  point  R  to  the  point  P  at 
the  dotted  line.  Fig.  7,  and  with  the  dividers  thus  spanned  mark  the 
points  FF'  Fig.  8,  from  points  A  and  D,  and  draw  the  lines  FG  and 
F'G' ;  from  point  I  draw  the  two  diagonal  lines  IF  and  IG,  span  the 
dividers  so  as  to  divide  one  of  these  diagonal  lines  into  six  equal  parts, 
viz.  I,  L,/0,  T,  0,  V,  G  ;  from  the  point  L  erect  a  perpendicular 
line  produced  until  it  intersects  the  line  IH  produced  ;  from  the 
point  of  intersection  M,  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  NIO  for  the  top 
of  the  elbow  ;  with  the  same  sweep  ol  the  dividers  describe  the  arcs  NO 
and  NO  ;  then  draw  an  indefinite  straight  line  PQ  tangent  to  the 
arcs  NO  and  NI,  having  the  points  of  contact  at  S  and  S  ;  on  this 
tangent  line  erect  a  perpendicular  line  passing  through  the  point  N  • 
(same  as  in  Fig.  5),  produced  until  it  intersects  the  line  BE  pro- 
duced ;  then  place  one  foot  of  the  dividers  on  the  point  of  intersection 
and  span  them  over  the  dotted  line  to  the  point  T,  (same  as  in  Fig.  5), 
and  with  the  dividers  spanned  describe  the  arcs  TS,  TS,  TS,  and  TS  ; 
these  arcs  and  the  arcs  NO,  NIO  and  ON,  will  be  one  side  of  the 
section,  and  by  the  same  rule  the  other  side  of  the  section  may  be 
described  at  the  same  time,  which  will  be  a  pattern  to  cut  the  other 
sections  by. 


SOLDERING. 

^  For  Lead  the  solder  is  1  part  tin,  1  to  2  of  lead;  — for  Tin  1  to 
2  parts  tin  to  1  of  lead  ;  —  for  Zinc  1  part  tin  to  1  to  2  of  lead  ;  — 
for  Pewter  1  part  tm  to  1  of  lead,  and  1  to  2  parts  of  bismuth. 

The  surfaces  to  be  joined  are  made  perfectly  clean  and  smooth,  and 
then  covered  with  sal-ammoniac,  or  resin,  or  both  ;  the  solder  is  then 
applied,  being  melted  in,  and  smoothed  over  by  the  soldering  iron. 

To  Joint  Lead  Plates. — The  joints  of  lead  plates  for  some  purposes 
are  made  as  follows  :  —  The  edges  are  brought  together,  hammered 
down  into  a  sort  of  channel  cut  out  of  wood,  and  secured  with  a  few 
tacks.  The  hollow  is  then  scraped  clean  with  a  scraper,  rubbed  over 
with  candle  grease,  and  a  stream  of  hot  lead  is  poured  into  it,  the 
surface  being  afterwards  smoothed  with  a  red-hot  plumber's  iron. 


24 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    STRAIGHT    ELBOW. 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    STRAIGHT    ELBOW. 

[Another  Method  for  describing  a  Straight  Elbow.] 

Figs.  9  &  10. 
Fig.  10.  FiQ-  9- 


/ 

■^^ 

e. 

d 

r 

/ 

\ 

C 

I 

/ 

\ 

& 

a 

y 

N> 

a 

Fig.  9.  —  Draw  a  profile  of  half  of  the  elbow  -wanted,  and  mark 
a  semicircle  on  the  line  representing  the  diameter,  divide  the  Bemi, 
circle  into  six  eqiial  parts,  draw  perpendicular  lines  from  each  divi- 
sion on  the  circle  to  the  angle  line  as  on  figure. 

Fig.  10.  Draw  the  circumference  and  depth  of  elbow  wanted, 
and  divide  into  twelve  equal  parts,  mark  the  height  of  perpendic- 
ular lines  of  Fig.  9  on  Fig.  10  a  6  c  &c.  ;  set  your  dividers  the 
same  as  for  the  semicircle  and  sweep  from  e  to  e  intersecting  with  f 
and  the  same  from  a  to  the  corner,  then  set  the  dividers  one-third 
the  circumference  and  sweep  from  e  to  i  each  side,  and  from  a  to  6 
each  side  at  bottom  ;  then  set  your  dividers  three-fourths  of  the  cir- 
cumference and  sweep  from  c  to  d  each  side  on  top,  and  from  c  to 
b  at  bottom,  and  you  obtain  a  more  correct  pattern  than  is  gen- 
erally used.  Allow  for  the  lap  or  seam  outside  of  your  drawing, 
and  lay  out  the  elbow  deep  enough  to  put  together  by  swedge  or 
machine.  Be  careful  in  dividing  and  marking  out,  and  the  large 
end  will  be  true  without  trimmiug.  The  seams  must  be  added  to 
drawing. 


To  Joint  Lead  Pi/)es.— Widen  out  the  end  of  one  pipe  with  a  taper 
■wood  drift,  and  scrape  it  clean  inside  ;  scrape  the  end  of  the  other  pipe 
outside  a  little  taijcrcd,  and  insert  it  in  the  former  :  then  solder  it  with 
common  lead  solder  as  before  described  ;  or  if  required  to  be  strong, 
rub  a  little  tallow  over,  and  cover  the  joint  with  a  ball  of  melted 
lead,  liolding  a  cloth  (2  or  3  plies  of  greased  bed-tick)  on  the  under 
side  ;   and  smoothing  over  witli  it  and  the  plumber's  iron. 


TO    DESCRIBE     BEVEL    COVERS. 


25 


TO  DESCRIBE  BEVEL  COVEES  FOR  VESSELS,  OR 
BREASTS  FOR  CANS. 

[Dra\rn  for  this  work  by  L.  W.  Truesdell,  Tinman,  Owcgo,  N.  T.] 

Fig.  11. 


From  0  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  DE  larger  than  the  vessel ; 
and  from  C  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  AB  the  size  of  the  vessel,  then 
with  the  dividers  the  same  as  you  described  the  circle  the  size  of  the 
vessel,  apply  them  six  times  on  the  circumference  of  the  circle  larger 
than  the  vessel  ;  for  can-breasts  describe  the  circle  FG  the  size  you 
wish  for  the  opening  of  the  breast. 


TO    DESCRIBE   PITCHED    COVERS  FOR  PAILS,   &c. 

Fig.  12. 


To  cut  for  pitched  covers,  draw  a  circle  one  inch  larger  than  the 
hoop  is  in  diameter  after  burring,  then  draw  a  line  from  the  centre  to 
^    3 


26 


OVAL    BOILER    COVER. 


the  circumference  as  in  the  figure,  and  one  inch  from  the  centre  and 
connecting  with  this  line  draw  two  more  lines  the  ends  of  which  sh.all 
be  one  inch  on  either  side  of  the  line  first  drawn,  and  then  cut  out 
the  piece. 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    OVAL    BOILER    COVER. 

[Drawn  for  this  vork  by  L.  W.  Teuesdell,  Tinman,  Owcgo,  N.  Y.] 

Fig.  13. 


From  C  as  a  centre,  descrihe  a  circle  whose  diameter  will  he  equal 
to  tlic  width  of  the  boiler  outside  of  the  wire,  and  draw  the  line  AB 
perpendicular  to  the  line  EF,  having  it  pass  through  the  point  D,  which 
is  one-half  of  the  length  of  the  boiler  ;  tlicn  mark  the  point  J  one 
quarter  of  an  inch  or  more  as  you  wish,  for  the  pitch  of  the  cover,  and 
apply  tlie  corner  of  the  scjuare  on  tlie  line  AB,  allowing  the  blade  to 
fall  on  the  circle  at  II,  and  the  tongue  at  the  point  .T  ;  tlien  draw  the 
lines  IIB,  B.I,   CA  and  AJ,  which  completes  the  description. 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    LIP    TO    A    MEASURE. 


27 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    LIP    TO    A    MEASURE. 

[Drawn  for  this  work  by  L.  "W.  Telesdell,  Tinman,  Owego,  N.  Y.] 
Orig'liial. 

Fig.  14. 


Let  the  circle  AB  represent  the  size  of  the  measure  ;  span  the  divi- 
ders from  K  to  F  three-quarters  of  the  diameter  ;  describe  the  semi- 
circle DKE  ;  move  the  dividers  to  G  the  width  of  the  lip  required,  and 
describe  the  semicircle  KPJ,  which  will  be  the  lip  sought. 


THE    CIRCLE    AND    ITS    SECTIONS. 

1.  The  Areas  of  Circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 
diameters  ;  any  circle  twice  the  diameter  of  another  contains  four 
times  the  area  of  the  other. 

2.  The  Radius  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  centre 
to  the  circumference. 

3.  The  Diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  through  the 
centre,  and  terminated  both  ways  at  the  circumference. 

4.  A  Chord  is  a  straight  line  joining  any  two  points  of  the  circum- 
ference. 

5.  An  Arc  is  any  part  of  the  circumference. 

6.  A  Semicircle  is  half  the  circumference  cut  off  by  a  diameter. 

7.  A  Segment  is  any  portion  of  a  circle  cut  off  by  a  chord. 

8.  A  Sector  is  a  part  of  a  circle  cut  off  by  two  radii. 


28 


FLARING    VESSEL. 


TO  DESCRIBE  A  FLARING   VESSEL    PATTERN,   A  SET   OF 

PATTERNS    FOR    A   PYRAMID    CAKE,    OR    AN 

ENVELOPE    FOR    A    CONE. 

[Drawn  for  this  work  by  L.  W.  Truesdell,  Tinman,  Owego,  N.  T.] 
Oi-igirxal. 

Fig.  15. 

s  ^— f-^  n 


From  a  point  G  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  AB  equal  to  the  large 
circumference  ;  with  the  point  F  as  a  centre,  the  depth  of  the  vessel, 
describe  a  circle  DE  equal  to  the  small  circumference  ;  then  draw  the 
lines  Gil  and  KS  tangent  to  the  circles  AB  and  DE  ;  from  the  point 
of  intersection  0  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arcs  ACB  and  DFE  ;  then 
ADKB  will  be  the  size  of  the  vessel,  and  three  such  pieces  will  bo  an 
envelope  for  it,  and  AJBTFU  the  altitude  ;  then  by  dividing  the  sector 


TO  DESCRIBE  THE   FRUSTUM  OF  A  CONE.      29 

SOH  into  sections  AB,  DE,  PQ,  and  WX,  you  will  have  a  set  of 
patterns  for  a  pyramid  cake  ;  and  the  sector  AOB  will  be  one-third  of 
an  envelope  for  a  cone. 

In  allowing  for  locks,  you  must  draw  the  lines  parallel  to  the  radii, 
as  represented  in  the  diagram  by  dotted  lines,  which  will  bring  the 
vessel  true  across  the  top  and  bottom. 

TO    DESCRIBE   A    CONE   OR    FRUSTUM. 
Fig.  16. 

D 


c.'''  \  /  "N^ 


G 


/ 
/ 
/ 


.A. 

First  draw  a  side  elevation  of  the  desired  vessel,  DE,  then  from  A 
as  a  centre  describe  the  arcs  CDC  and  GEG  ;  after  finding  the  diam- 
eter of  the  top  or  large  end,  turn  to  the  table  of  Diameters  and  Cir- 
cumferences, where  you  will  find  the  true  circumference,  which  you 
will  proceed  to  lay  out  on  the  upper  or  larger  arc  CDC,  making  due 
allowance  for  the  locks,  wire  and  burr.  This  is  for  one  piece  ;  if  for 
two  pieces  you  will  lay  out  only  one-half  the  circumference  on  the 
plate  ;  if  for  three  pieces  one-third  ;  if  for  four  pieces  one-fourth  ;  and 
so  on  for  any  number,  remembering  to  make  the  allowance  for  locks, 
wire  and  burr  on  the  piece  you  use  for  a  pattern. 
3* 


30 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    HEAPvT. CYCLOID. 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    HEART. 

[Drawn  for  this  work  by  L.  W.  Tkuesdell,  Tinman,  Owego,  N.  Y.] 

Fig.  17. 


Draw  an  indefinite  line  AB  ;  then  span  the  dividers  one-fourth  the 
■width  you  wish  the  heart,  and  describe  two  semicircumferences  AC 
and  CB  ;  span  the  dividers  from  A  to  B,  the  width  of  the  heart,  and 
desaribe  the  lines  AD  and  BD,  which  completes  the  description. 


CYCLOID. 
Fig.  18. 


ABA 

Cjcloid,  a  curve  much  used  in  mechanics.    It  is  thus  formed  : — 

If  the  circumference  of  a  circle  be  rolled  on  a  right  lino,  beginning 

at  any  point  A,  and  continued  till  the  same  point  A  arrive  at   the 

line  again,  making  just  one  revolution,  and  thereby  measuring  out 

a  straight  line  ABA  equal  to  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  while  the 


TO    STRIKE    THE  SIDE  OF  A    FLARING    VESSEL. 


31 


point  A  in  the  circumference  traces  out  a  curve  line  ACAGxi  :  then 
this  curve  is  called  a  cycloid  ;  and  some  of  its  properties  are  contained 
in  the  following  lemma. 

If  the  generating  or  revolving  circle  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
cycloid,  its  diameter  coinciding  with  the  axis  AB,  and  from  any  point 
there  be  drawn  the  tangent  CF,  the  ordinate  CDE  perpendicular  to 
the  axis,  and  the  chord  of  the  circle  AD  ;  then  the  chief  properties 
are  these  : 

The  right  line        CD  equal  to  the  circular  arc    AD  ; 

The  cycloidal  arc  AC  equal  to  double  the  chord  AD  ; 

The  semi-cycloid  ACA  equal  to  double  the  diameter  AB,  and 

The  tangent  CF  is  parallel  to  the  chord  AD. 
This  curve  is  the  line  of  swiftest  descent,  and  that  best  suited  for 
the  path  of  the  ball  of  a  pendulum. 


TO    STRIKE  THE  SIDE    OF   A    FLARING   VESSEL. 

Fig.  19. 


To  tind  the  radius  of  a  circle  for  striking  the  side  of  a  flaring  ves- 
sel having  the  diameters  and  depth  of  side  given. 

Rule.  -^As  the  difference  between  the  lai'ge  and  small  diameter 
is  to  the  depth  of  the  side,  so  is  the  small  diameter  to  the  radius 
of  the  circle  by  which  it  is  struck. 

Example.  —  Suppose  ABCD  to  be  the  desired  vessel,  with  a 
top  diameter  of  12  inches,  bottom  diameter  9  inches,  depth  of  side 
8  inches.     Then  as  12  —  9  =  3  :  8  :  :  9  to  the  radius.  • 

8x  9  =  72 -7-3  =  24  inches,  answer. 

TINNING     IRON. 

Cleanse  the  metal  to  be  tinned,  and  rub  with  a  coarse  cloth, 
previously  dipped  in  hydrochloric  acid,  (muriatic  acid)  and  then  rub 
on  French  putty  with  the  same  clotB.  French  putty  is  made  by 
mixing  tin  filings  with  mercury. 


32 


TO    DESCRIBE    BREASTS    FOR    CANS. 


TO     DESCRIBE     BEVEL     COVERS     FOR    VESSELS,    OR 
BREASTS    FOR    CANS. 
Fia.   20. 


Construct  a  right  angle  ADB,  and  from  tlic  point  C,  tlie  altitude 
height  you  wish  the  breast,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  F  ;  then  on  the 
line  B,  mark  the  point  E  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  can  ;  and  on  the 
line  F,  mark  the  point  G  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  opening  in  the 
top  of  breast  ;  draw  a  line  N  to  pass  through  the  points  E  and  G  pro- 
duced until  it  intersects  the  line  A  ;  place  one  foot  of  the  dividers  at 
the  point  of  intersection  II,  and  place  the  other  on  the  point  E,  and 
describe  the  circle  EIK  ;  span  the  dividers  from  the  point  H  to  point 
G,  and  describe  the  circle  GLM  ;  then  span  the  dividers  from  the 
point  D  to  E,  and  step  them  six  times  on  the  circle  EIK,  which  gives 
the  size  of  the  breast.  Remember  to  mark  the  lines  for  the  locks 
parallel  with  the  radii. 

A    GOOD   SOLDEK. 

Take  1  lb.  of  pure  Banca  tin,  and  melt  it,  then  add  half  a  pound 
of  clean  lead,  an<l  when  it  is  melted,  stir  tlie  mixture  gently  witli  a 
stick  or  poker,  and  pour  it  out  into  solder  strips. 


TO    FIND    THE    CENTRE    OF    A    CIRCLE. 


33 


rO    riXD    THE     CENTRE     OF    A     CIRCLE    FROM    A    PART 
OF    THE    CIRCUMFERENCE. 

[Drawn  for  this  work  by  L.  'W.  Truesdell,  Tinman,  Owego,  N.  T.] 
Or-iginal. 
Fig.  21. 
Span  the  dividers  any  distance  you  wish,  and  place  one  foot  on  the 
circumference  AB,  and  describe  the  semicircumferences  CD,  EF,  GH, 
and  IK,  and  through  the  points  of  their  intersection  PQ  and  RS, 
draw  two  indefinite  lines  LM  and  NO  ;  the  point  of  their  intersection 
T,  will  be  the  centre  desired. 


34 


TO    CONSTRUCT    THE    FRUSTUM    OF    A   CONE. 


SECTOR,    FOR    OBTAINING    ANGLES. 
Fig.  22. 

«     JL    - 


Sector,  a  portion  of  a  circle  comprehended  between  any  two 
radii  and  tlieir  intercepted  arcs.—  Similar  Sectors  are  those  whose 
radii  include  equal  angles. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  sector.  Say  as  360"  is  to  the  degrees,  &c., 
in  the  arc  of  the  sector,  so  is  the  area  of  the  whole  circle  to  the  area 
of  the  sector.  Or  multiply  tlic  radius  by  the  length  of  the  arc,  and 
half  the  product  will  be  the  area. 


TO    CONSTRUCT    THE    FRUSTUM    OF    A    CONE. 
Form  of  flat  Plate  by  which  to  construct  any  Frustum  of  a  Cone. 

Fia.  23. 


Let  ABCD  represent  the  required  frustum  ;  continue  the  lines 
AD  and  BC  until  they  meet  at  E  ;  then  from  E  as  centre,  with  the 
radius  EC,  describe  tlie  arc  CII  ;  also  from  E,  with  the  radius 
EB,  describe  the  arc  BI  ;  make  BI  equal  in  length  to  twice  AGB, 
draw  the  line  EI,  and  BCIII  is  the  form  of  the  plate  as  required. 


STRIKING    OUT    A    CONE. 


35 


RULE    FOR    STRIKING    OUT   A    CONE    OR   FRUSTUM. 

Fig.  24. 
C 


In  a  conical  surface,  there  may  be  economy,  sometimes,  in  haying 
the  slant  height  6  times  the  radius  of  base.  For  a  Circle  may  be 
wholly  cut  into  conical  surfaces,  if  the  angle  is  60°,  30°,  15°,  &c. 

But  there  is  a  greater  simplicity  in  cutting  it,  when  the  angle  i3 
60°.  For  instance,  take  AC  equal  to  the  slant  height,  describe  an 
indefinite  arc  AO  ;  with  the  same  opening  of  the  dividers  measure 
from  A  to  B  ;  draw  BC  and  we  have  the  required  sector.  This 
would  make  the  angle  C  equal  60°.  This  angle  may  be  divided 
into  two  or  four  equal  parts,  and  we  should  thus  have  sectors  whose 
angle  would  be  30°  or  15°,  which  would  not  make  the  vessel  very 
flaring.     The  accompanying  figure  gives  about  the  shape  of  the  flar- 

FiG.  25. 


ing  vessel  when  the  angle  of  the  sector  is  30°. 


TO  FIND  THE  CONTENTS  OF  A  PYRAMID  OR  CONE. 

Rule. — INIultiply  the  diameter  of  the  base  by  itself,  and  this  pro- 
duct by  the  height,  then  take  one-third  of  this  product  for  the  con- 
tents ;  to  obtain  gallons,  divide  the  last  result  by  231. 

Example. — Required  the  cubic  inches  of  a  Cone  whose  base  is  8 
inches  diameter,  and  height  18  inches. 

8  X  S  =  01  X  18  =  1152  -;-  3  =  3:4  cubic  inches,  -^  231  =  1  gall.  2^  quarts. 


3G  COXTENTS  IN  GALLONS  OF  A  FRUSTUM  OF  A  CONE. 


^ 

^ 

^z" 

\/  \ 

/R 

s 

HIPPED    ROOFS,    MILL    HOPPERS,    &c. 

To  find  the  various  Angles  and  proper  Dimensions  of  Materials 
whereby  to  construct  any  figure  ivhoseform  is  the  Frxistnm  of  a 
proper  or  inverted  Pyramid,  as  Hipped  Roofs,  Mill  Hoppers,  8,-c. 

Fio.  2G. 

D  C 


n 


A  B 

Let  ABCD  be  tlie  given  dimensions  of  plcan  for  a  roof,  tlie  height 
RT  also  being  given  ;  draw  the  diagonal  AR,  meeting  the  top  or 
ridge  Rs  on  plan  ;  from  R,  at  right  angles  with  AR  and  equal  to 
the  required  height,  draw  the  line  RT,  then  TA,  equal  the  length  of 
the  struts  or  corners  of  the  I'oof ;  from  A,  with  the  distance  AT*, 
describe  an  arc  T/,  continue  the  diagonal  AR  until  it  cuts  thearo 
T^,  through  which,  and  parallel  with  the  ridge  Rs,  draw  the  line 
m  n,  which  determines  the  required  breadth  for  each  side  of  the 
roof:  from  A,  meeting  the  line  m  n,  draw  the  line  Ao,  or  proper 
angle  for  the  end  of  each  board  by  which  the  roof  might  require  to 
be  covered  ;  and  the  angle  at  T  is  what  the  boards  require  to  be  made 
in  the  direction  of  their  thickness,  when  the  corners  or  angles  re- 
quire to  be  mitred. 


CONTENTS  IN  GALLONS  OF  THE  FRUSTUM  OF  A  CONE. 

Figs.  27,  28,  29. 


To  find  the  Contents  in  Gallons  of  a  Vessel,  whose  diameter  is 
larger  at  one  end  than  the  other,  such  as  a  Bowl,  Pail,  Flvkin, 
Tub,  Coffee-pot,  &c. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  larger  diameter  by  the  smaller,  and  to  the 


CONTENTS    IN    GALLONS    OF    SQUAKE    VESSELS.  37 

product  add  one-third  of  the  square  of  their  difference,  multiply  by 
the  height,  and  multiply  that  product  by  .0034  for  Wine  Gallons,  and 
by  .002785  for  Beer. 

EifAJiPLE. — Required  the  contents  of  a  Coffee-pot  G  inches  diameter 
at  the  top,  9  inches  at  the  bottom,  and  18  inches  high. 


large  diameter    9 

brou 

-ht 

up 

1026 

small      do.         6 

.0034 

54 

4104 

J  of  the  square   3 

3078 

57 

3.4884 

height     18 

or  nearly  : 

456 

57 

Carried  up     1026 

1026  multiplied  by  .002785  equal  2.8574  Beer  Gallons. 


RULE   TO    FIND    THE    CONTENTS    IN    GALLONS    OF    ANY 

SQUARE    VESSEL. 

Rule. — Take  the  dimensions  in  inches  and  decimal  parts  of  an 
inch,  multiply  the  length,  breadth,  and  height  together,  and  then 
multiply  the  product  by  .004329  for  Wine  Gallons,  and  by  .003546 
for  Ale  Gallons. 

Example. — How  many  AVine  Gallons  will  a  box  contain  that  is  10 
feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  deep. 

Length  in  inches,        120  brought  up  345600 

Breadth  in    do.  60  .004329 


7200  3110400 

Height  in  inches,  48  691200 


57600 
28800 


1036800 
1382400 


Carried  up,  345600 


1496.102400  gallons. 

or  1496  galls,  and  3j  gills. 
4 


38 


CONTENTS  IN    GALLONS  OF    CYLINDRICAL    VESSELS. 


CONTENTS    IX    GALLONS    OF    CYLINDRICAL    VESSELS. 

Rule. — Take  the  dimensions,  in  inches  and  decimal  parts  of  an 
inch.  Square  the  diameter,  multiply  it  by  the  length  in  inches,  and 
then  multiply  the  product  by  .0034  for  "Wine  Gallons,  or  by  .0(^785 
for  Ale  Gallons. 

Example. — How  many  F.  S.  Gallons  ■will  a  Cylindrical  Vessel  con- 
tain, •whose  diameter  is  9  inches,  and  length  9^  inches? 

Diameter,  9  brought  up     769.5 

9  .0034 


Square  Diam.    81 
Length,  9.5 


30780 
23085 


405 

729 


2.G1630 
or  2  gallons  and  5  pints. 


Carried  up,  769.5 


TO    ASCERTAIN    THE    WEIGHTS    OF    FIPES     OF    VARIOUS 
METALS,    AND    ANY    DLA.METER    REQUIRED. 


Thickness  in 

parts  of  an 
inch. 

Wrought  iron. 

Copper. 

Lead. 

1-32 

•326 

Hi  lbs.  plate    ^38 

2  lbs 

lead      -483 

1-16 

•653 

23<i            "        ^76   . 

4 

■967 

3-32 

•976 

35"            "       114 

H 

"       1-45 

1-8 

1-3 

46^            "       1-52 

8 

"      1-933 

5-32 

1-G27 

58              "      1-9 

9.i 

"      2-417 

3-16 

1-95 

70             "      2-28 

11 

"      2-9 

7-32 

2-277 

80A            "      2-66 

13 

"      3-383 

1-4 

2-6 

93             "      3-04 

15 

"      3.867 

Rule. — To  the  interior  diameter  of  the  pipe,  in  inches,  add  the  thickness 
of  the  metal ;  multiply  the  sum  by  the  decimal  numbers  opposite  tlie  re- 
quired thickness  and  under  the  metal's  name  ;  also  by  the  length  of  the 
pipe  in  feet,  and  the  product  is  the  weight  of  the  pipe  in  lbs. 

1.  Required  the  weight  of  a  copper  pipe  whose  interior  diameter  is  7i 
inches,  its  length  6^  feet,  and  the  metal  1-8  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

7  5  +  -125  =  7-625  X  1-52  X  6-25  =  72-4  lbs. 

2.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  leaden  pine  18^  feet  in  length,  3  inches  in- 
terior diameter,  and  the  metal  ^  of  an  incli  in  thickness? 

3  -f  -25  =  3-25  X  3-867  X  18-5  =  2325  lbs. 


TIN    PLATES. QUANTITY    OF    TIN    FOR.    CANS. 


TIN    PLATES. 


Size,  Leni/th,  Breadth,  and 

Weight. 

Bbabd'Uaee. 

No.  of 
Sheets 
in  Box. 

Length  and 
Breadth. 

■Weight  per 
Box. 

Inches  .Inches. 

Cwt 

.  qr.  lbs. 

I  C 

225 

14  by  10 

1 

0     0 

1   X 

225 

14  by  10 

1 

1     0 

1  XX 

225 

14  by  10 

1 

1  21 

Each  Ix  advances 

1   XXX 

225 

14  by  10 

1 

2  14 

§1.75  to  $2.00 

1  xxxx 

225 

14  by  10 

1 

3     7 

1  xxxxx 

225 

14  by  10 

2 

0     0 

1  xxxxxx 

225 

14  by  10 

2 

0  21 

, 

DC 
D  X 

100 
100 

17  by  12h 
17  by  U.h 

0 
1 

3  14 

0  14 

W    ^     1       1 

o  "5  o  ^ 
S  ^  j;  <a 

Dxx 

100 

17  by  12i 

1 

1     7 

D  XXX 

100 

17  by  124 

1 

2     0 

>>£.  9_-. 

D  xxxx 

100 

17  by  12.i 

1 

2  21 

o  _  o  o 

D  xxxxx 

100 

17  by  12^ 

1 

3  14 

'^  .2   ^  !H 

D  xxxxxx 

100 

17  by  12i 

2 

0     7 

4J  a.':^       m 

SDC 

200 

15  by  11 

1 

1  27 

£     —Is 

SD  X 

200 

15  bv  11 

1 

2  20 

fe  J  =.  2  -3 

SD  XX 

200 

15  by  11 

1 

3  13 

S  D  XXX 
S  D  xxxx 

200 
200 

15  by  11 
15  by  11 

2 
2 

0     6 
0  27 

ition, 
ortec 
costi 
than 
•egu: 

S  D  xxxxx 

200 

15  by  11 

2 

1  20 

•6   D.             ■" 

S  D  xxxxxx 

200 

15  by  11 

2 

2  13 

«.=  =  o  o 

^3      Qi      -J      «      Qi 

^H    r:   cfi   o    r^ 

about 

TTT  Taggers, 

225 

14  by  10 

1 

0     0 

c3   3   Cw 

IC 

225 

12  by  12 

" 

1  X 

225 

12  by  12 

1   XI 

225 

12  by  12 

1   XXX 

225 

12  by  12 

About  the  same  weight 

1  xxxx 

225 

12  by  12 

» 

>per  Box,  as  the  plates 
above  of  similar  brand, 
14  by  10. 

1  c 

112 

14  by  20 

1  X 

112 

14  by  20 

1  XX 

112 

14  by  20 

1   XXX 

112 

14  by  20 

I  xxxx 

112 

14  by  20 

- 

Leaded  or'il  C 
Terms    jl  x 

112 
112 

14  by  20 
14  by  20 

1 

1 

0  0 

1  0 

>     For  Roofing. 

OIL  CANISTERS,  (from2i  to  125  ff alls.)  WITH  THE  QUANTITY 
AND  QUALITY  OF  TIN  REQUIRED  FOR  CUSTOM  WORK. 


Galls. 

Quantity  and  Quality. 

Galls. 

33 

Quantity  and  Quality. 

2^ 

2     Plates,  I  X 

in  body. 

13^  Plates,  IX  in  body,  "3 

3i 

2        «     S  DX 

breadths  high. 

5^ 

2         "        DX 

45 

13^  Plates,  S  D  X  in  body. 

8 

4        «        IX 

60 

13i       "         D  X      " 

10 

3^       «         DX 

90 

154      "         D  X       «    * 

15 

4        "        DX 

125 

20         "         D  X       « 

•  The  boUom  tier  of  plates  to  be  placed  lengthwise. 


40      WEIGHT    OF    WATER   AND    DECIMAL    EQUIVALENTS. 


WEIGHT    OF    WATER. 

1  cubic  inch is  equal  to  .03617  pounds. 

12  cubic  inclies    is  equal  to  .434      pounds. 

1  cubic  foot is  equal  to      02. 5  pounds. 

1  cubic  foot is  equal  to        7.50        U.  S.  gallons. 

1.8  cubic  feet is  equal  to    112.00        pounds. 

35.84  cubic  feet is  equal  to  2240.00        pounds. 

1  Cylindrical  inch  ..  is  equal  to  .02842  pounds. 

12  Cylindrical  inches .  is  equal  to  .341      pounds. 

1  Cylindrical  foot    . .  is  equal  to      49.10        pounds. 

1  Cylindrical  foot    . .  is  equal  to        6.00        U.  S.  Gallons. 

2.282  Cylindrical  feet    ..  is  equal  to    112.00        pounds. 

45.64  Cylindrical  feet    . .  is  equal  to  2240.00        pounds. 

11.2  Imperial  gallons  . .  is  equal  to    112.00        pounds. 

224  Imperial  gallons  . .  is  equal  to  2240.00        pounds. 

13.44  United  States  galls,  is  C(iual  to    112.00        pounds. 

268.8  United  States  galls,  is  equal  to  2240.00        pounds. 

Centre  of  pressure  is  at  two-thirds  depth  from  surface. 


DECIMAL    EQUIVALENTS    TO    THE    FRACTIONAL    PARTS 

OF    A    GALLON,    OR    AN    INCH. 

[The  Inch,  or  Gallon,  being  divided  into  32  parts.] 

[In  multiplying  decimals  it  is  usual  to  drop  aU  but  the  two  or  tlirce  first  figures.] 


Deci- 
mals. 

Gallon. 

or 
Inch. 

3 

5 

1 

a 

ll 

Deci- 
mals. 

Gallon. 

or 

Inch. 

0 
12 

p 
3 

1 
Decimals. 

Gallon.    .     ^ 
Inch.    0  1  S 

i 

& 

.03123 

1-32 

i^ 

.375 

3-8 

H 

i  .71875 

23-32  23  55 

.0625 

1-16 

2 

^ 

I   .40625  13-32  13 

H 

n'\  .75 

3-4     24  6    3 

.09375 

3-32 

3 

i 

i   .4375       7-16 

14 

U 

13      .78125 

25-32  25  6i  3i 

.125 

1-8 

4 

1      i   .46875  15-32 

15 

n 

IJ      .8125 

13-16  26  6i3i 

.15625 

5-32 

5 

li    SLS            1-2 

16 

4 

2       .84375 

27-32,27  63 

33 

.1875 

.S-16 

an    ?    .53125  17-32 

17 

^ 

21     .875 

7-8    '28  7 

34 

.21875 

7-32 

7 

13    I  .5625      9-16 

18 

4i 

2]     .90625 

29  32  29  7.i3| 

.25 

1-4 

8 

12    1   1. 59375, 19-32 

19 

■ii 

2i      .9375 

13-16  30  74 

n 

.28125 

9-32 

9 

'2-1  14   .625     !   5-8 

20 

5 

2h     .96875 

31-32  31  73 

H 

,3125 

1  5-16  10 

2i  H   -65625  21-32  21 

5\ 

2^   1.000 

1       328 

4 

.34375 

11-32 

,11 

\2i 

ill 

.6873  ill-16,22 

,5i,2|,| 

1 

APPLIC.VTTON.  Required  tlie  rrnllnns  in  any  Cylindrical  Vessel.  Pup- 
pose  a  vessel  9  1-i  inrlies  deep,  i^  inclics  (liiimcttT,  and  contents  2G163, 
that  is,  2  gallons  and  61  hundrwllli  parts  o(  a  jL;allon,no\v  to  ascertain  lliis  de- 
cimal of  jT  gallon  refer  to  llic  al.ovc 'i'ablc,  lor  the  decimal  ihal  is  nearest, 
which  is -620,  op])ositc  to  which  is  5-!!llis  of  a  gallon,  or  20  gills,  or  5  pints, 
cr  2  1-2  quarts,  consequently  the  vessel  contains  2  gallons  anil  5  pnits. 

INCHES.  To  find  what  part  of  an  inch  the  decimal  -708  is.  Uefcr  to 
the  above  Table  for  the  decimal  that  is  nearest,  which  is  71875,  opi)osile 
to  which  is  23-32,  or  nearly  3-4ths  of  an  inch. 


A.     TA.BLE 

CONTAINING   THE 

DIAMETERS,     CIRCUMFERENCES,     AND    AREAS 

OF  CIRCLES, 

AND  THE 

CONTENT  OF  EACH  IN  GALLONS  AT  1  FOOT  IN  DEPTH. 


XJXILIT'Z'    OF    THE    T.A.BLE. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Required  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  tlie  diameter  being  ^«;e 
inches  ? 

In  the  column  of  circumferences  opposite  the  given  diameter, 
stands  15'708*  inches,  the  cii'cumference  required. 

2.  Required  the  capacity,  in  gallons,  of  a  can  the  diameter  being 
6  feet  and  depth  10  feet  ? 

In  the  fourth  column  from  the  given  diameter  stands  211.4472* 
being  the  content  of  a  can  6  feet  in  diameter  and  1  foot  in  depth, 
■which  being  multipled  by  10  gives  the  required  content,  two  thou- 
sand one  hundred  fourteen  and  a  half  gallons. 

3.  Any  of  the  areas  in  feet  multiplied  by  .03704,  the  product  equal 
the  number  of  cubic  yards  at  1  foot  in  depth. 

4.  The  area  of  a  circle  in  inches  multiplied  by  the  length  or  thick- 
ness in  inches,  and  by  .263,  the  product  equal  the  "weight  in  pounds 
of  cast  iron. 

*  See  opposite  page  (page  40)  for  Decimal  Equivalents  to  the  Fraciional  parts 
of  a  Gallon,  aud  an  Inch. 


42 


DIAMETERS   AND   CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    CIRCLES. 


DIAMETERS     AND     CIRCUMFERENCES     OF    CIRCLES,    AND 

THE    CONTENT   IN    GALLONS  AT   1   FOOT    IN    DEPTH. 

[Jlrea  in  Inches.'] 


Diam.  Circ.  ia. 


31416 
3- 5343 
39270 
4-3197 
4-7124 
5-1051 
5-4978 
5-8905 
6-2332 
6  6759 
7-0686 
74613 
7-S540 
8-2467 
8-6394 
90321 
9-4248 
9-8175 
0-210 
0-602 
0-995 
1-38S 
1-781 
2  173 
2-566 
2959 
3351 
3-744 
4-137 
4-529 
4-922 
5-315 
5-708 
6-100 
6-493 
6-S86 
7-278 
7-671 
8-064 
8-457 
8-849 
9-242 
9635 
20027 


Area.  in. 


Gallons. 


•7854 
-9940 
1-2271 
1-4848 
1-7671 
20739 
2-4052 
2-7611 
3-1416 
3-5465 
3-9760 
4-4302 
4-9087 
5-4119 
5-9395 
6-4918 
7-0686 
7-6699 
8.2957 
8-9462 
9-6211 
10-320 
11-044 
11  793 
12-566 
13-364 
14-186 
15-033 
15-904 
16-800 
17-720 
18-665 
19-635 
20-629 
21-647 
22-690 
23-758 
24-850 
25-967 
27-108 
28-274 
29-464 
30-679 
31-919 


-04084 
-05169 
•063S0 
•07717 
-09188 
•10784 
•12506 
-14357 
-16333 
-18439 
•20675 
•23036 
•25522 
•28142 
•30S83 
•33753 
-36754 
-39879 
•43134 
•46519 
•50029 
■53664 
•57429 
-61324 
-65343 
•69493 
•73767 
•78172 
'82701 
•87360 
-92144 
-97058 
•02102 
-07271 
-12564 
•17988 
•23542 
-29220 
-35028 
-40962 
-47025 
•53213 
•59531 
-65979 


Diam. 


h 

A 
8 

i 

7. 
8 

in. 

i 

8 

J. 
4 
3 
S 

h 


Circ.  in. 


20-420 
20-813 
21-205 
21-598 
21-991 
22-383 
22-776 
23-169 
2.3-562 
23-954 
24-347 
24-740 
25-132 
25515 
25-918 
26-310 
26-703 
27-096 
27-489 
27-881 
28-274 
28-667 
29-059 
29-452 
29-845 
30-237 
30  630 
31-023 
31-416 
31 -.808 
32-201 

32  594 
32-986 
33379 

33  772 
34-164 

34  557 
34-950 

35  343 
35-735 
.36-128 
36.521 
36-913 
37-306 


Area.  in.      Gallons. 


33-183 
34-471 
35-7S4 
37-122 
38-484 
39-871 
41-282 
42-718 
44-178 
45-663 
47-173 
48-707 
50^265 
51-848 
53456 
55-088 
56-745 
58  426 
60-132 
61-862 
63617 
65-396 
67-200 
69-029 
70-882 
72-759 
74-662 
76-588 
78  540 
80-515 
82516 
84-540 
86-590 
8S-664 
90  762 
92  885 
95-033 
97-205 
99-402 
101-623 
103  S69 
106- 139 
108434 
110-7.53 


1-72552 
1-79249 
1>S6077 
1-93)34 
2-00117 
2-07329 
214666 
2  221.34 
2.29726 
2-37448 
2-45299 
2  5.3276 
2-61378 
2-69609 
2-77971 
2-86458 
2-95074 
3-03815 
3-12686 
3-21682 
3-30808 
3-40059 
3-49440 
3-58951 
3-6S586 
378.347 
388242 
3-98258 
4-0S40S 
4^1 8678 
4-29083 
4-39608 
4-50268 
4-61053 
4-71962 
4-S-2S46 
4-94172 
5-05466 
5- 16890 
5  28439 
5-40119 
5-51923 
5-63857 
5-75916 


DIABIETERS    AND    CIRCUBIFEEENCES    OF    CIRCLES. 


43 


DIAMETERS    AND     CIRCUMFERENCES     OF    CIRCLES,    AND 
THE    CONTENT  IN   GALLONS  AT    1    FOOT    IN    DEPTH. 

[Area  in  Feet."] 


Diam. 

Circ. 

Area  in  ft. 

Gallons. 

Diatn. 

Circ. 

Area  in  ft. 

Gallons. 

Ft 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

1ft.  in  depth' 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  In. 

1  ft.  in  deplli 

3 

If 

•7854 

5-8735  i 

4 

6 

14  If 

15-9043 

118-9386 

1 

3 

4f 

.9217 

6-8928 

4 

7 

14  4f 
14  71 

16-4986 

123-3830 

2 

3 

8 

1-0690 

7-9944 

4 

8 

171041 

127-9112 

3 

3 

11 

1  2271 

9-1766 

4 

9 

14  ll' 

17-7205 

132-5209 

4 

4 

2i 

1-3962 

10-4413  ' 

4 

10 

15  21 

183476 

137-2105 

5 

4 

5| 

1  5761 

11-7666 

4 

11 

15  5^ 

18-9858 

142-0582 

6 

4 

8| 

1-7671 

13  2150  1 

7 

4 

llf 

1-9689 

14  7241 

5 

15  8h 

19-6350 

146-8384 

8 

5 

2i 

21816 

16-3148 

5 

1 

15  11| 

16  23 

20-2947 

151-7718 

9 

5 

5| 

2-4052 

17-9870 

5 

2 

20-96.56 

156-7891 

10 

5 

9 

2  6398 

19-7414 

5 

3 

16  5i 

21-6475 

161-88S6 

11 

6 

H 

2S852 

21-4830 

5 
5 

4 
5 

16  9 

17  01 

22-3400 
23-0437 

167-0674 
172-3300 

2 

6 

3| 

3  1416 

23-4940 

5 

6 

17  H 

237583 

177-6740 

2 

1 

6 

H 

3-4087 

25-4916 

5 

7 

17  6| 

24-4835 

183-0973 

2 

2 

6 

9| 

3-6869 

275720 

5 

8 

17  9f 

25-2199 

188-6045 

2 

3 

7 

03 

3-9760 

297340 

5 

9 

18  0| 

25-9672 

1941930 

2 

4 

7 

n 

4-2760 

32-6976 

o 

10 

18  31 

26-7251 

199-8610 

2 

5 

7 

7 

4-5869 

34-3027 

5 

11 

18  71 

27-4943 

205-6133 

2 

6 

7 

lOi 

4-9087 

36-7092 

8 

2 

7 

8 

1§ 

5-2413 

39-1964 

2 

8 

8 

"^8 

7| 

5-5850 

41  7668 

6 

18  101 

19  n 

28-2744 

211-4472 

2 

9 

8 

5-9395 

44-4179 

6 

3 

30-6796 

229-4342 

2 

10 

8 

log 

6-3049 

471505 

6 

6 

20  41 

21  2| 

33-1831 

248-1564 

2 

11 

9 

«-"<! 

n 

6-6813 

49-9654 

6 

9 

35-7847 

267-6122 

3 

9 

5 

70686 

52-8618 

7 

21  111 

38-4846 

287-8032 

3 

1 

9 

Si 

7-4666 

55-8382 

7 

322  9i 

41  2825 

308-7270 

3 

2 

9 

^4 

llf 

7  8757 

58-8976 

7 

6  23  65 

44-1787 

330-3859 

3 

3 

10 

2i 

8-2957 

62  0386 

7 

9 

24  41 

471730 

352-7665 

3 

4 

10 

5| 
8| 

8-7265 

65-2602 

3 

5 

10 

9-1683 

68  5193 

8 

25  1^ 

502656 

375-9062 

3 

6 

10 

9-6211 

73-1504 

8 

3 

25  11 

534562 

399-7668 

3 

7 

11 

3" 

100846 

75-4166 

8 

6 

26  8| 

56-7451 

424-3625 

3 

8 

11 

6* 

10-5591 

78-9652 

8 

9 

27  53 

601321 

449-2118 

3 

9 

11 

4 

11-0446 

82  5959 

3 

10 

12 

H 

11-5409 

86  3074 

9 

28  3i 

63-6174 

475-7563 

3 

1] 

12 

34 

120481 

90-1004 

9 

3  29  Of 

67-2007 

502-5536 

8 

9 

6  29  lOJ 

70-8823 

530-0861 

4 

12 

61 

12-5664 

939754 

9 

9 

30  Ih 

74-6620 

558-3522 

4 

1 

12 

H 

13-0952 

97-9310 

4 

2 

13 

1 

13-6353 

101-9701 

10 

31  5 

78-5400 

587  3534 

4 

3 

13 

4i 

14-1862 

103-0300 

10 

3]  32  2| 

82-5160 

617-0876 

4 

4 

13 

'^i 

14-7479 

110  2907 

10 

6  32  115 

86-5903 

647-5568 

4 

5 

13 

lO.i 

15-3206 

111  5735 

|10 

9  33  9\ 

90-7627 

678-2797 

44 


DIAMETERS    AND    CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    CIRCLES. 


Diam. 

Circ. 

Area  in  ft. 

Gallons. 

Diam. 

Circ. 

Area  i:i  ft. 

Gallons. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft. 

In. 

]  A.  in  depth 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  In. 

1  ft.  in  depth 

11 

34 

6f 

4| 

95-0334 

710-6977 

21 

65  llf 

346-3614 

2590-2290 

11  3 

35 

99-4021 

743-3686 

21 

3 

66  9 

354-6571 

2652-2532 

11  6 

36 

u 

103-8691 

776-7746 

21 

6 

67  6h 

363-0511 

2715-0413 

11  9 

36 

101 

108-4342 

8109143 

21 

9 

68  31 

371-5432 

2778-5486 

12 

37 

81 

113-0976 

8481890 

22 

69  If 
69  10.1 

380  1336 

2842-7910 

12  3 

38 

55 

117-8590 

881-3966 

22 

3 

388-8220 

2907-7664 

12  6 

39 

3d 

1227187 

917-7395 

22 

6 

70  8.i 

397-6087 

2973-4889 

12  9 

40 

Of 

127-6765 

954-8159 

22 

9 

71  5f 

406-4935 

3039-9209 

13 

40 

10 

132-7326 

992-6274 

23 

72  3 

415-4766 

3107-1001 

13  3 

41 

U 

137-8867 

1031-1719 

23 

3 

73  Oi 

424-5577 

3175-0122 

13  6 

42 

^ 

143-1391 

1070-4514 

23 

6 

73  91 

433-7371 

3243-6595 

13  9 

43 

n 

148-4896 

1108-0645 

23 

9 

74  74 

443-0146 

33130403 

14 

43 

in 

153-9384 

1151-2129 

24 

75  4| 

452-3904 

3383-1563 

14  3 

44 

H 

159-4852 

1192-6940 

24 

3 

76  21 

461-8642 

3454-0051 

14  6 

45 

6| 

165-1303 

12349104 

24 

6 

76  llf 

471-4363 

3525-5929 

14  9 

46 

4 

170-8735 

1277-8615 

24 

9 

77  9 

481-1065 

3597-9068 

15 

47 

H 

176-7150 

1321-5454 

25 

78  6| 

79  31 

490-8750 

3670-9596 

15  3 

47 

101 

182  6545 

1365-9634 

25 

3 

500-7415 

3744-7452 

15  6 

48 

4 

1886923 

1407-5165 

25 

6 

SO  l.-i 

510-7063 

3819-2657 

15  9 

49 

5i 

194-8282 

1457-0032 

25 

9 

SO  ioi| 

520  7692 

3894-5203 

16 

50 

H 

2010624 

1503-6250 

26 

81  8i 

530-9304 

3970-5098 

16  3 

51 

Oh 

207-3946 

1550-9797 

26 

3 

82  54 

541-1896 

4047-2322 

16  6 

51 

lO" 

213-8251 

1599.0696 

26 

6 

83  3 

551-5471 

4124-6898 

16  9 

52 

n 

220-3537 

1647-8930 

26 

9 

84  oa 

562-0027 

4202-9610 

17 

53 

^ 

226-9806 

1697-4516 

27 

84  91 

572-5566 

4281-8072 

17  3 

54 

2i 

233  7055 

1747-7431 

27 

3 

85  8^ 

5832085 

4361-4664 

17  6 

54 

ll| 

240-5287 

1798  7698 

27 

6 

86  4f 

593-9587 

4441-8607 

17  9 

55 

9I 

247-4500 

1850-5301 

27 

9 

87  2| 

604-8070 

45229886 

18 

56 

H 

254-4696 

19030254 

28 

87  lU 

615-7536 

4604-8517 

18  3 

57 

4 

261-5S72 

1956-2537 

28 

3 

88  9 

626-7982 

4686-4876 

18  6 

58 

n 

268-8031 

2010  2171 

28 

6 

89  6g 

637-9411 

4770-7787 

18  9 

58 

105 

276-1171 

20649140 

28 

9 

90  3:1 

649-1821 

4854  8434 

19 

59 

H 

283-5294 

2120-3462 

29 

91  Id 

660-5214 

4939-6432 

19  3 

60 

5|  291-0397 

21765113 

29 

3 

91  105 

92  8i 

93  5i 

671-9587 

5025-1759 

19  6 

61 

3 A  298-6483 

2233  2914 

29 

6 

683-4943 

5111-44S7 

19  9 

62 

Oi 

306-3550 

2291-0452 

29 

9 

6951280 

5198-4451 

20 

62 

91 

7« 

4 

314-1600 

2.349-4141 

30 

94  21 

95  02 

706-8600 

5286-1818 

20  3 

63 

322  0630 

2408-5159 

30 

3 

718-6900 

5374-6512 

20  6 

64 

3300643 

2468-3528 

30 

6 

95  9-I 

730-6183 

5463-85.58 

20  9 

65 

2.j'33H- 1637 12528  92331 

30 

9 

96  7| 

742-6447 

55.53-7940 

CAPACITY  OF  CANS  IN  GALLONS. 


45 


CAPACITY  OF  CANS  ONE  INCH  DEEP. 


UTILITY   OF   THE   TABLE. 

Required  the  contents  of  a  vessel,  diameter  G  7-liiths  indies,  depth  10  inches? 

By  llie  table  a  vessel  1  inch  deep  and  C  and  "i-Wths  inches  diameter  contains 
.15  (hundredtlis)  of  a  gallon,  then  .15  X  10  =  1.50  or  1  gallon  and  2  quarts. 

Required  the  contents  of  a  can,  diameter  19  S-lOlhs  inches,  depth  30  inches  ? 

B}'  the  table  a  vessel  1  inch  deep  and  19  and  $-Wths  inches  diameter  contains 
1  gallon  and  .33  (hundredths),  then  1.33  X  30  =  39.90  or  nearly  40  gallons. 

Required  the  depth  of  a  can  whose  diameter  is  12  and  2-10(/iS  inches,  to  con- 
tain IG  gallons. 

By  the  table  a  vessel  1  inch  deep  and  12  and  2-10<As  inches  diameter  contains 
.50  (hundredths  of  a  gallon),  then  16  -r-  .50  =  32  inches  the  depth  required,  viz  : 
.50  )  IG  (  32  X  -50  =  16  gallons. 


Diam- 

1 

2 

3 

4 

F, 

6 

7 

8 

9 

eter. 

TTT 

10 

T^ 

TO- 

10- 

.04 

TF 

TTJ- 

Tn 

T^ 

3 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.04 

.05 

4 

.05 

.05 

.05 

.05 

.06 

.06 

.07 

.07 

.07 

.08 

5 

.08 

.08 

.08 

.09 

.09 

.10 

.10 

.11 

.11 

.11 

6 

.12 

.12 

.12 

.13 

.13 

.14 

.14 

.15 

.15 

.16 

7 

.16 

.17 

.17 

.18 

.18 

.19 

.19 

.20 

.20 

.21 

8 

.21 

.22 

.22 

.23 

.23 

.24 

.25 

,25 

.26 

.25 

9 

.27 

.28 

.28 

.29 

.30 

.30 

.31 

.31 

.32 

.33 

10 

.34 

.34 

.35 

.36 

.36 

.37 

.38 

.38 

.39 

.40 

11 

.41 

.41 

.42 

.43 

.44 

.44 

.45 

.46 

.47 

.48 

12 

.48 

.49 

.50 

.51 

.52 

.53 

.53 

.54 

.55 

.56 

13 

.57 

.58 

.59 

.60 

.60 

.61 

.62 

.63 

.64 

.65 

14 

.66 

.67 

.68 

.69 

.70 

.71 

.72 

.73 

.74 

.75 

15 

.76 

.77 

.78 

.79 

.80 

.81 

.82 

.83 

.84 

.85 

16 

.87 

.88 

.89 

.90 

.91 

.92 

.93 

.94 

.95 

.97 

17 

.98 

.99 

1.005 

1.017 

1.028 

1.040 

1.051 

1.063 

1.075 

1.086 

18 

1.101 

1.113 

1.125 

1.138 

1.150 

1.162 

1.170 

1.187 

1.200 

1.211 

19 

1.227 

1.240 

1.253 

1  266 

1.279 

1.292 

1.304 

1  317 

1.330 

1.343 

20 

1.360 

1.373 

1.385 

1.400 

1.414 

1.428 

1.441 

1.455 

1.478 

1.482 

21 

1.499 

1.513 

1.527 

1.542 

1.5.56 

1.570 

1..585 

1.600 

1.612 

1.630 

22 

1.645 

1.660 

1.675 

1.696 

1.705 

1.720 

1.735 

1  750 

1.770 

1.780 

23 

1.798 

1.814 

1.830 

1.845 

1.861 

1.876 

1.892 

1.908 

1.923 

1.940 

24 

1.9.58 

1.974 

1.991 

2.007 

2.023 

2.040 

2.056 

2.072 

2.096 

2.105 

25 

2.125 

2.142 

2.159 

2.176 

2.193 

2.210 

2  227 

2.244 

2.261 

2.280 

26 

2.298 

2.316 

2.3.33 

2.351 

2..369 

2.386 

2.404. 

2.422 

2.440 

2.460 

27 

2.478 

2.496 

2.515 

2.533 

2.552 

2.. 570 

2.588 

2.607 

2.625 

2.643 

28 

2.665 

2.6S4 

2.703 

2.722 

2.741 

2.764 

2.780 

2.800 

2.S20 

2.836 

29 

2.859 

2.879 

2.898 

2.918 

2.938 

2.958 

2.977 

2.997 

3.017 

3.0.36 

30 

3.060 

3.080 

3.100 

3.121 

3.141 

3.162 

3.182 

3.202 

3.223 

3.245 

31 

3.267 

3.288 

3.309 

3.330 

3.351 

3.372 

3.393 

3.414 

3.436 

3.457 

32 

3.481 

3.503 

3.524 

3.543 

3.568 

3.590 

3.612 

3.633 

3.655 

3.689 

33 

3.702 

3.725 

3.747 

3.773 

3.795 

3.814 

3.837 

3  860 

3.882 

3.904 

34 

3.930 

3.953 

3.976 

4.003 

4.022 

4.046 

4.070 

4.092 

4.115 

4.140 

35 

4.165 

4.188 

4.212 

4.236 

4.260 

4.284 

4307 

4..331 

4.355 

4,380 

36 

4.406 

4.430 

4.455 

4.483 

4.503 

4.528 

4.553 

4  577 

4.602 

4.626 

37 

4.654 

4.679 

4.704 

4.730 

4.755 

4.780 

4.805 

4.834 

4.855 

4.880 

38 

4.909 

4.935 

4.961 

4.987 

5.012 

5.038 

5.064 

5.090 

5.120 

5.142 

39 

5.171 

5.197 

5.224 

5.250 

5.277 

5.304 

5.330 

5.357 

5.383 

5.410 

40 

5.440 

5.467 

5.491 

5.521 

5.548 

5.576 

5.603 

5.630 

5.657 

5.684 

46  CRYSTALLIZED   TIN-PLATE. 


CRYSTALLIZED    TIX-PLATE. 

Crystallized  tin-plate,  is  a  variegated  primrose  appearance,  pro- 
duced upon  the  surface  of  tiu-plate,  by  applying  to  it  in  a  heated  state 
some  dilute  niti'o-mui'iatic  acid  for  a  few  seconds,  then  washing  it  with 
water,  drying,  and  coating  it  with  lacker.  The  figures  are  more  or 
less  beautiful  and  diversified,  according  to  the  degree  of  heat,  and 
relative  dilution  of  the  acid.  Place  the  tin-plate,  slightly  heated, 
over  a  tub  of  water,  and  rub  its  surface  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  a 
liquor  composed  of  four  parts  of  aquafortis,  and  two  of  distilled  water, 
holding  one  part  of  common  salt  or  sal  ammoniac  in  solution.  When- 
ever the  crystalline  spangles  seem  to  be  thoroughly  brought  out,  the 
plate  must  be  immersed  in  water,  w-ashed  either  with  a  feather  or  a 
little  cotton  (taking  care  not  to  rub  off  the  film  of  tin  that  forms  the 
feathering) ,  forthwith  dried  with  a  low  heat,  and  coated  with  a  lacker 
varnisli,  otherwise  it  loses  its  lustre  in  the  air.  If  the  whole  surface 
is  not  plunged  at  once  in  cold  water,  but  if  it  be  partially  cooled  by 
sprinkling  water  on  it,  the  crystallization  will  be  finely  variegated 
with  large  and  small  figures.  Similar  results  will  be  obtained  by 
blowing  cold  air  through  a  pipe  on  the  tinned  surface,  while  it  is  just 
passing  from  the  fused  to  the  solid  state. 


TINNING. 

1.  Plates  or  vessels  of  brass  or  copper,  boiled  with  a  solution  of 
Btannate  of  potassa,  mixed  with  turnings  of  tin,  become,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  minutes,  covered  with  a  firndy  attached  layer  of  pure 
tin. — 2.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  boiling  the  articles  with  tin 
filings  and  caustic  alkali,  or  cream  of  tartar.  In  the  above  way, 
chemical  vessels  made  of  copper  or  brass  may  be  easily  and  perfectly 
tinned. 


NEW   TINN^NG   PROCESS. 

The  articles  to  be  tinned  are  first  covered  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  and  when  quite  clean  are  placed  in  warm  water,  then  dipped 
in  a  solution  of  muriatic  acid,  copper  and  zinc,  and  then  plunged  into 
a  tin  bath  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  zinc  has  been  added.  When 
the  tinning  is  finished,  the  articles  are  taken  out  and  plunged  into 
boiling  water.  The  operation  is  completed  by  placing  them  in  a  very 
warm  sand  bath.     This  last  process  softens  the  iron. 


KUSTITIEN'S   METAL   FOR   TINNING. 

Malleable  iron  1  pound,  lieat  to  whiteness  ;  add  5  ounces  regulus 
of  antimony,  and  Molucca  tin  24  pounds. 


RECEIPTS 

FOR   THE    USE    OF 

JAPANNEES,    VAENISHERS, 

BUILDERS   AND    MECHANICS, 

AND  FOR 
OTHER  USEFUL  AND  IMPORTANT  PURPOSES 

IN  THE 

PRACTICAL    ARTS. 


PRACTICAL     RECEIPTS 


[TLj  following  Receipts  are  selected  from  "  Ure's  Dictionary,"  "  Cooley's  Cy- 
clopedia," "  MuspraU's  Chemistry,"  and  other  valuable  sources.] 


JAPANNING    AND    VAPvNISHING. 

Japanning  is  the  art  of  covering  todies  by  grounds  of  opaque 
colors  in  vavnisli,  wliicli  may  be  afterwards  decorated  by  printing 
or  gilding,  or  left  in  a  plain  state.  It  is  also  to  be  looked  upon  in 
another  sense,  as  that  of  ornamenting  coaches,  snuff  boxes,  screens, 
&c.  All  surfaces  to  be  japanned  must  be  perfectly  clean,  and 
leather  should  be  stretched  on  frames.  Paper  should  be  stiff  for 
japanning. 

The  French  prime  all  their  japanned  articles,  the  English  do 
not.  This  priming  is  generally  of  common  size.  Those  articles 
that  are  primed  thus,  never  endure  as  well  as  those  that  receive  the 
japan  coating  on  the  first  operation,  and  thus  it  is  that  those 
articles  of  japan  work  that  are  primed  with  size  when  they  are  used 
for  some  time,  crack,  and  the  coats  of  japan  fly  off  in  flakes. 

A  solution  of  strong  isinglass  size  and  honey,  or  sugar  candy, 
makes  a  good  japan  varnish  to  cover  water  colors  on  gold  grounds. 

A  pure  white  priming  for  japanning,  for  the  cheap  method,  is 
made  with  parchment  size,  and  one-third  of  isinglass,  laid  on  very 
thin  and  smooth.  It  is  the  better  for  three  coats,  and  when  the  last 
coat  is  dry,  it  is  prepared  to  receive  the  painting  or  figures.  Pre- 
vious to  the  last  coat,  however,  the  work  sliould  be  smoothly  polish- 
ed. When  wood  or  leather  is  to  be  japanned,  and  no  priming  used, 
the  best  plan  is  to  lay  on  two  or  three  coats  of  varnish  made  of 
seed-lac  and  resin,  two  ounces  each,  dissolved  in  alcohol  and 
strained  through  a  cloth.  This  varnish  sliould  be  put  on  in  a  warm 
place,  and  the  work  to  be  varnished  should,  if  possible,  be  warm 
also,  and  all  dampness  should  be  avoided,  to  prevent  the  varnish 
from  being  chilled.  When  the  work  is  prepared  with  the  above 
composition  and  dry,  it  is  fit  for  the  proper  japan  to  be  laid  on.  If 
the  ground  is  not  to  be  white  the  best  varnish  now  to  be  used  is  made 
of  shellac,  as  it  is  the  best  vehicle  for  all  kind  of  colors.  This  is 
made  in  the  proportions  of  the  best  shellac, 'five  ounces,  made  into 
powder,  steeped  in  a  quart  of  alcohol,  and  kept  at  a  gentle  heat  for 
two  or  three  days  and  shaken  frequently,  after  which  the  solution 
0 


50  JAPANNING   AND   VARNISHING. 

must  l)e  filtered  tlirougli  a  flannel  bag,  and  kept  in  a  well  corked  bot- 
tle for  use.  This  varnish  for  hard  japanning  on  copper  or  tin  will 
stand  for  ever,  unless  fire  or  liammer  be  used  to  burn  or  beetle  it  off. 
The  color  to  be  used  with  shellac  varnish  may  be  of  any  pigments 
whatever  to  give  the  desired  shade,  as  this  varnish  will  mis  with 
any  color. 

WHITE   JAPAN   GROUNDS. 

To  form  a  hard,  perfect  white  ground  is  no  easy  matter,  as  the 
substances  which  arc  generally  used  to  make  the  japan  hard,  have  a 
tendency,  by  a  number  of  coats,  to  look  or  become  duU'in  bright- 
ness. One  white  ground  is  made  by  the  following  composition  : 
white  flake  or  lead  washed  over  and  ground  up  witli  a  sixth  of  its 
weight  of  starch,  then  dried  and  mixed  with  the  finest  gum,  ground 
up  in  parts  of  one  ounce  gum,  to  half  an  ounce  of  rectified  turpentine 
mixed  and  ground  thoroughly  together.  This  is  to  be  finely  laid  on 
the  article  to  be  japanned,  dried,  and  then  varnished  with  five  or  six 
coats  of  the  foUowmg :  two  ounces  of  the  whitest  seed-lac  to  three 
ounces  of  gum-anima  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and  dissolved  in  a 
quart  of  alcohol.  This  lac  must  be  carefully  picked.  For  a  softer 
vax'nish  than  this,  a  little  turpentine  should  be  added,  and  less  of  the 
gum.  A  very  good  varnish  and  not  brittle,  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving gum-anima  in  nut  oil,  boiling  it  gently  as  the  gum  is  added, 
and  giving  the  oil  as  much  gum  as  it  will  take  up.  The  ground  of 
white  varnish  may  of  itself  be  made  of  this  varnish,  by  giving  two 
or  three  coats  of  it,  but  when  used  it  should  be  diluted  vrith  pure 
turpentine.  Although  this  varnish  is  not  brittle  it  is  liable  to  be  in- 
dented with  strokes,  and  it  will  not  bear  to  be  polished,  but  if  well 
laid  on  it  will  not  need  polisliing  afterwards  ;  it  also  takes  some  time 
to  dry.  Heat  api)lied  to  all  oils,  however,  darkens  their  color, 
and  oil  varnishes  for  white  grow  very  yellow  if  not  exposed  to  a  full 


clear  light, 


GUM   COPAL. 


Copal  varnish  is  one  of  the  very  finest  varnishes  for  japanning 
purposes.  It  can  be  dissolved  by  linseed  oil,  rendered  dry  by  adding 
some  quicklime  at  a  heat  somewhat  less  than  will  boil  or  decompose 
the  oil  by  it. 

This  solution,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  turpentine,  forms  a 
very  transparent  varnish,  which,  wlicn  properly  applied  and  slowly 
dried  is  very  hard  and  durable.  This  varnish  is  applied  to  snuff 
boxes,  tea  boards  and  otlicr  iitcnsils.  It  also  preserves  paintings 
and  renders  tlicir  surfaces  capable  of  reflecting  ligiit  more  uniformly. 

If  powdered  copal  be  mixed  in  a  mortar  with  canqihor,  it  softens 
and  becomes  a  coherent  mass,  and  if  camphor  be  added  to  alcohol  it 
becomes  an  excellent  solvent  of  copal  Ijy  adding  the  copal  well 
ground,  and  employing  a  toleraljle  degree  of  heat,  having  the 
vessel  well  corked  which  must  Jiave  a  long  neck  for  the  allowance  of 
expansion,  and  the  vessel  must  only  be  aljout  one-fourth  filled  with 
the  mixture.  Copal  can  also  be  incorporated  with  turpentine,  witli 
one  part  of  powdered  copal  to  twelve  parts  of  pure  turpentine,  sub- 


JAPANNING    AND    VARNISHING.  51 

jected  to  the  heat  of  a  sand-bath  for  several  days  in  a  long  necked 
mattress,  shaking  it  frequently. 

Copal  is  a  good  varnish  for  metals,  such  as  tin ;  the  vai'nish 
must  bo  dried  in  an  oven,  eacli  coat,  and  it  can  be  colored  with  some 
substances,  but  alcohol  varnish  ivill  mix  iivith  any  coloring  matter. 
For  wliite  japans  or  varnishes,  we  liave  a,lready  shown  -tliat  fine 
chalk  or  white  lead  was  used  as  a  basis,  and  the  vai'nishes  coated 
over  it. 

To  japau  or  varnish  wliite  leather,  so  that  it  may  be  elastic,  is 
altogether  a  different  work  from  varnishing  or  japanning  wood  or 
metal,  or  papier  mache. 

For  white  leather  oil  is  the  principal  ingredient,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  chalk  is  extensively  used  to  give  white  leather  its  pure 
color,  or  speaking  more  philosophically,  its  fiir  colorless  whiteness. 
White  leather  having  already  the  basis  of  white  varnish,  it  should 
get  a  light  coat  of  the  pure  varnish,  before  mentioned,  and  dried 
well  ill  ^')coi;e;!,oracoatof  the  oil  copal  will  answer  very  well.  This 
being  well  dried,  boiled  nut  oil  nicely  coated  and  successively  dried, 
will  make  a  most  beautifal  white  varnish  for  leather,  not  liable  to 
crack.  This  quality  takes  a  long  time  to  di-y,  and  of  course  is  more 
expensive.  Coarse  varnish  may  be  made  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  into 
which  is  added  gradually  the  acetate  of  lead  as  a  driei-.  This  addi- 
tion must  be  done  very  cautiously  as  the  oil  will  be  apt  to  foam  over. 

A  better  and  more  safe  drying  mixture  than  the  mere  acetate  of 
lead,  is,  to  dissolve  the  acetate  of  lead  in  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
neutralize  the  acid  with  the  addition  of  pipe  clay,  evaporate  the 
sediment  to  perfect  dryness,  and  feed  the  oil  when  gently  boiling 
gradually  with  it. 

These  varnishes  ov  japans,  as  far  as  described,  have  only  ref- 
erence to  white  grounds. 

There  is  some  nice  work  to  be  observed,  and  there  is  much  in 
applying  the  varnishes  at  the  right  time,  knowing  by  the  eye  the 
proper  moment  when  the  mixture  is  perfect,  or  when  to  add  any  iu- 
gredient.    These  things  requu-e  j)ractice. 

BLACK    GBOTJNDS. 

Black  grounds  for  japans  may  be  made  by  mixing  ivory  black 
with  shellac  varnish  ;  or  for  coarse  work,  lamp  black  and  "the  top 
coating  of  common  seedlac  varnish.  A  common  black  jajian  may 
be  made  by  painting  a  piece  of  work  with  drying  oil,  (oil  mixed 
with  lead,)  and  putting  the  work  into  a  stove,  not  too  hot,  but 
of  such  a  degree,  gradually  raising  the  heat  and  keeping  it  up 
for  a  long  time,  so  as  not  to  burn  the  oil  and  make  it  blister. 
This  process  makes  very  fair  japan  and  requires  no  polishing. 

BLACK    JAPAX. 

Naples  asphaltum  fifty  pounds,  dark  gum-anime  eight  pounds,  fuse, 
add  linseed  oil  twelve  gallons,  boil,  add  dark  gum  amber  ten  pounds, 
previously  fused  and  boiled  with  linseed  oil  two  gallons,  add  the 
driers,  and  proceed  as  last.     Used  for  wood  or  metals. 


52  JAPANNIXG     AXD    VAK^,-ISHING. 


BRUNSWICK   BLACK. 

1.  Foreign  asplialtum  forty-five  pounds,  drying  oil  six  gallons, 
litharge  six  pounds,  boil  as  last,  and  thin  -with  twenty-five  gallons 
of  oil  of  turpentine.  Used  for  ironwork,  &c.  2.  Black  pitch  and 
gas  tar  asphaltum,  of  each  twenty-five  pounds,  boil  gently  for  five 
hours,  then  add  linseed  oil  eight  gallons,  litharge  and  red  lead,  of 
each  ten  pounds,  boil  as  before,  and  thin  with  oil  of  turpentine  twen- 
ty gallons.     Inferior  to  the  last,  but  cheaper. 

BLUE    JAPAN    GROUNDS. 

Blue  japan  grounds  may  be  formed  of  bright  Prussian  blue. 
The  color  may  be  mixed  with  shellac  varnish,  and  brought  to  a  pol- 
ishing state  by  five  or  six  coats  of  vai'uisli  of  seed-lac.  The  varnish, 
however,  is  apt  to  give  a  greenish  tinge  to  the  blue,  as  the  varnish 
has  a  yellowish  tinge,  and  blue  and  yellow  form  a  green.  Whenever 
a  light  blue  is  desii'ed,  the  purest  varnish  must  always  be  used. 

SCARLET    JAPAN. 

Ground  vermilion  may  be  used  for  this,  but  being  so  glaring  it 
is  not  beautiful  unless  covered  over  with  rose-pink,  or  lalie,  which 
have  a  good  cifect  wlien  thus  used.  For  a  very  bright  crimson 
ground,  sufiSlower  or  Indian  lake  should  be  used,  always  dissolved  in 
the  alcohol  of  whicli  the  varnish  is  made.  In  place  of  this  lake, 
carmine  may  be  used,  as  it  is  more  common.  The  top  coat  of  var- 
nish must  always  be  of  the  white  seed-lac,  which  has  been  before 
described,  and  as  many  coats  given  as  will  be  thought  proper  ;  it  is 
easy  to  judge  of  this. 

YELLOW     GROUNDS. 

If  turmeric  be  dissolved  in  tlie  spirit  of  wine  and  strained 
through  a  cloth,  and  then  mixed  with  pure  seed-lac  varnish,  it  makes 
a  good  yellow  japan.  SattVon  will  answer  for  the  same  purpose  in 
the  same  way,  but  the  brightest  yellow  ground  is  made  by  a  primary 
coat  of  pure  cromc  yellow,  and  coated  successively  with  the  varnish. 

Dutch  pink  is  used  for  a  kind  of  cheap  yellow  japan  ground.  If 
a  little  dragon's  Idood  be  added  to  the  varnish  for  yellow  japan,  a 
most  beautiful  and  rich  salmon-culorcd  varnish  is  the  result,  and  by 
these  two  mixtures  all  the  shades  of  flesh-colored  japans  arc  produced. 

QREEN    JAPAN    GROUNDS. 

A*  good  green  may  be  made  by  mixing  Prussian  blue  along  with 
the  cromate  of  lead,  or  with  turmeric,  or  orpiment,  (sul[)huret  of 
arsenic)  or  ochre,  only  the  two  should  1)C  ground  together  and  dis- 
solved in  alcohol  and  applied  as  a  ground,  then  coated  with  four  or 
five  coats  of  shellac  varnish,  in  tlic  manner  already  described.  A 
very  bright  green  is  made  by  laying  on  a  ground  of  Dutch  metal,  or 
leaf  of  giiM,  and  then  coating  it  over  with  distilled  verdigris  dissolved 
in  alcohol,  then  the  varnishes  on  the  top.  This  is  a  splendid  green, 
brilliant  and  glowing. 


JAPANNING   AND   VARNISHING.  53 


ORANGE   COLOEED    GKOUNDS. 

Orange  grounds  may  be  made  of  yellow  mixed  witli  vermilion 
or  carmine,  just  as  a  briglit  or  rather  inferior  color  is  wanted.  The 
yellow  should  always  be  in  quantity  to  make  a  good  full  color,  and 
the  red  added  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  shade.  If  there  is 
not  a  good  full  body  of  yellow,  the  color  will  look  watery,  or  bare,  as 
it  is  technically  termed.  • 

PUKPLE   JAPAN    GROUNDS. 

^is  is  made  by  a  mixture  of  lake  and  Prussian  blue,  or  car- 
mifle,  or  for  an  inferior  color  vermilion,  and  treated  as  the  foregoing. 
When  the  ground  is  laid  on  and  perfectly  dried,  a  fine  coat  of  pure 
boiled  nut  oil  then  laid  on  and  perfectly  dried,  is  a  good  method  to 
have  a  japan,  not  liable  to  crack.  But  a  better  plan  is  to  use 
this  oil  in  the  varnish  given,  the  first  coat,  after  the  gi'ound  is  laid 
on,  and  which  should  contain  considerable  of  pure  turpentine.  In 
every  case,  where  oil  is  used  for  any  pui'pose  for  varnish,  it  is  all  the 
better  if  turpentine  is  mixed  with  it.  Turpentine  enables  oils  to 
mix  with  either  alcohol  or  water.     Alkalies  have  this  property  also. 

BLVCK   JAPAN. 

1.  Asphaltum  three  ounces,  boiled  oil  four  quarts,  burnt  umber 
eight  ounces.  Mix  by  heat,  and  when  cooling  thin  with  turpentine. 
2.  Amber  twelve  ounces,  asphaltum  two  ounces  ;  fuse  by  heat,  add 
boiled  oil  half  a  pint,  resin  two  ounces  ;  when  cooling  add  sixteen 
ounces  oil  of  turpentine.     Both  are  used  to  varnish  metals. 

JAPAN  BLACK  FOR  LEATHER. 

1.  Burnt  umber  four  ounces,  true  asphaltum  two  ounces,  boiled 
oil  two  quarts.  Dissolve  the  asphaltum  by  heat  in  a  little  of  the  oil, 
add  the  bui-nt  umber  ground  in  oU,  and  the  i-emainder  of  the  oil, 
mis,  cool,  and  thin  with  turpentine.  Flexible.  2.  Shellac  one  part, 
wood  naphtha  four  parts,  dissolve,  and  color  with  lampblack.  In- 
flexible. 

TRANSP.UIENT   JAPAN. 

Oil  of  turpentine  four  ounces,  oil  of  lavender  three  ounces,  cam- 
phor one-half  drachm,  copal  one  ounce  ;  dissolve.  Used  to  japan 
tin,  but  quick  copal  varnish  is  mostly  used  instead. 

JAPANNERS'    COPAL   VARNISH. 

Pale  African  copal  seven  pounds,  fuse,  add  clarified  linseed  oil  one 
half  gallon,  boil  for  five  minutes,  a-emove  it  into  the  open  air,  add 
boiling  oil  of  turpentine  three  gallons,  mix  well,  strain  it  into  the  cis- 
tern, and  cover  it  up  immediately.  Used  to  varnish  furniture,  and 
by  japanners,  coachmakers,  &c.  Dries  in  15  minutes,  and  may  be 
polished  as  soon  as  hard. 
5* 


54  JAPANNING    AND    VARNISHING. 


TORTOISE   SHELL    JAP.VN. 

This  varnisli  is  prepared  by  taking  of  good  linseed  oil  one  gal- 
lon, and  of  umber  half  a  pound,  ami  boiling  them  together  until 
the  oil  becomes  very  brown  and  thick,  Avhen  they  are  strained 
through  a  cloth  and  boiled  again  until  the  composition  is  about 
the  consistence  of  pitch,  when  it  is  lit  for  use.  Having  prepared 
thk  varnish,  clean  well  the  copper  or  iron  plate  or  vessel  that  is 
to  be  varnished,  (japanned,)  and  then  lay  vcrmillion,  mixed  with 
shellac  varnish,  or  with  drying  oil,  diluted  with  turj^entine,  very 
thinly  on  the  i)laccs  intended  to  imitate  the  clean  parts  of  the 
tortoise  shell.  AVhen  the  vermillion  is  dry  brush  over  the  whole  ■fl^th 
the  above  umber  varnish  diluted  to  a  due  consistence  with  tur- 
pentine, and  when  it  is  set  and  firm,  it  must  be  put  io^  a  stove 
and  undergo  a  strong  heat  for  a  long  time,  even  two  weeks  will 
not  hurt  it.  Tliis  is  the  ground  for  tliose  beautiful  snuff  boxes 
and  tea  boards  Avhich  arc  so  much  admired,  and  those  grounds  can 
be  decorated  with  all  kinds  of  paintings  that  fancy  may  suggest, 
and  the  work  is  all  the  better  to  bo  finished  in  an  annealing 
oven. 

PAIJJTIXO    JAPAN    WOEK. 

The  colors  to  be  painted  are  tempered,  generally,  in  oil,  which 
should  have  at  least  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  gum  sandarach,  or 
mastic  dissolved  in  it,  and  it  should  be  well  diluted  with  turpen- 
tine, that  the  colors  may  be  laid  on  thin  and  evenly.  In  some 
instances  it  does  well  to  put  on  water  colors  or  grounds  of  gold, 
which  a  skilful  hand  can  do  and  manage  so  as  to  make  the  work 
appear  as  if  it  was  embossed.  These  water  colors  are  best  pre- 
pared by  means  of  isinglass  size,  mixed  with  honey,  or  sugar  candy. 
These  colors  when  laid  on  must  receive  a  number  of  upper  coats 
of  the  varnish  we  have  described  befoi'e. 

JAPANNING    OLD   TEA-TRAYS. 

First  clean  them  thoroughly  with  soap  and  water  and  a  little  rotten 
stone  ;  then  dry  them  by  wiping  and  exposure  at  the  fire.  Now,  get 
some  good  copal  varnihh,  mix  with  it  some  bronze  powder,  and  apply 
with  a  brush  to  tlie  denuded  parts.  After  Avliich  set  tlie  tca-lray  in 
an  oven  at  a  heat  of  212'^  or  31)0*^  until  the  varnish  is  dry.  Two  coata 
will  make  it  equal  to  new. 

JAPAN    FINISHING. 

The  finishing  part  of  japanning  lies  in  laying  on  and  polishing  the 
outer  coats  of  varnish,  whieli  is  necessary  in  all  painted  or  simply 
ground  colored  japan  work.  'Wlicn  brightness  and  clearness  are 
wanted,  the  white  kind  of  varnish  is  necessary,  for  seed-lac  varnish, 
which  is  tlic  hardest  and  most  tenacious,  imparts  a  yellow  tinge. 
A  mi.\ed  vai nisb,  we  believe,  is  the  best  for  this  purpose,  that  is,  for 
combining  li;iidncss  and  purity.     Take  then  three  ounces  of  sccd-lac, 


VARNISHES.  55 

picked  very  carefully  from  all  sticks  and  dirt  and  washing  it  -well 
with  cold  water,  stirring  it  up,  pouring  it  off,  and  continuing  the 
process  until  the  water  runs  off  perfectly  pure.  Di-y  it  and  then 
reduce  it  to  powder,  and  put  it  with  a  pint  of  pure  alcohol  into  a 
bottle,  of  which  it  must  occupy  only  two-thirds  of  its  space.  This 
mixture  must  be  shaken  well  together  and  the  bottle  kept  at  a  gentle 
heat  (being  corked)  until  the  lac  be  dissolved.  When  this  is  the 
case,  the  clear  must  be  poured  off,  and  the  remainder  strained  through 
a  cloth,  and  all  the  clear,  strained  and  poured,  must  be  kept  in  a  well 
stopped  bottle.  The  manner  of  using  this  seed-lac  Tarnish  is  the 
same  as  that  before  described,  and  a  fine  polishing  varnish  is 
made  by  mixing  this  with  the  pure  white  varnish.  The  pieces 
of  work  to  be  varnished  for  finishing  should  be  placed  neara 
stove,  or  in  a  warm,  dry  room,  and  one  coat  should  be  perfectly 
dry  before  the  other  is  applied.  The  varnish  is  applied  by  proper 
brushes,  beginning  at  the  middle,  passing  the  stroke  to  one  end  and 
with  the  other  stroke  from  the  middle  to  the  other  end.  Great  skill 
is  displayed  in  laying  on  these  coats  of  varnish.  If  possible  tlie  skill 
of  hand  should  never  cross,  or  twice  pass  over  in  giving  one  coat. 
When  one  coat  is  dry  another  must  be  laid  over  it,  and  so  on  succes- 
sively for  a  number  of  coats,  so  that  the  coating  should  be  sufficiently 
thick  to  stand  fully  all  the  polishing,  so  as  not  to  bare  the  surface  pf 
the  colored  work.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  coats  are  thus  laid 
on,  the  work  is  fit  to  be  polished,  which,  in  common  cases,  is  com- 
menced with  a  rag  dipped  in  finely  powdered  rotten  stone,  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  rubbing  a  little  oil  should  be  used  along  with 
the  powder,  and  when  the  work  appears  fine  and  glossy  a  little  oil 
should  be  used  alone  to  clean  oft'  the  powder  and  give  the  work  a 
still  brighter  hue.  In  very  fine  work,  French  whiting  should  be  used, 
which  should  be  washed  in  water  to  remove  any  sand  that  might  be 
in  it.  Pumice  stone  ground  to  a  very  fine  powder  is  used  for  the 
first  pai-t  of  polishing,  and  the  finishing  done  with  whiting.  It  is 
always  best  to  dry  the  varnish  of  all  japan  work  by  heat.  For 
wood  work,  heat  must  be  sparingly  used,  but  for  metals  the  varnish 
should  be  dried  in  an  oven,  also  for  papier  mache  and  leather.  The 
metal  will  stand  the  greatest  heat,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
darken  by  too  high  a  temperature.  When  gold  size  is  used  in  gild- 
ing for  japan  work,  where  it  is  desired  not  to  have  the  gold  shine, 
or  appear  burnished,  the  gold  size  should  be  used  with  a  little  of  the 
spirits  of  turpentine  and  a  little  oil,  but  when  a  considerable  degree 
of  lustre  is  wanted  without  burnishing  and  the  preparation  neces- 
sary for  it,  a  little  of  the  size  along  with  oil  alone  should  be  used. 


VARNISHES,  —  MISCELLANEOUS. 

Different  substances  are  employed  for  making  varnish,  the  object 
being  to  produce  a  liquid  easily  applied  to  the  surface  of  cloth, 
paper  or  metal,  which,  when  dry,  will  protect  it  with  a  fine  skin. 


56  VARNISHES, 

Gums  and  resins  are  the  substances  employed  for  making  varnishes ; 
they  are  dissolved  either  in  turpentine,  alcohol,  or  oil,  in  a  close 
stone  ware,  glass  or  metal  vessel,  exposed  to  a  low  heat,  as  the  case 
may  require,  or  cold.  The  alcohol  or  turpentine  dissolves  the  gum 
or  resin,  and  holds  them  in  solution,  and  after  the  application  of 
the  varnish,  this  mixture  being  mechanical,  the  moisture  of  the 
liquid  evaporates,  and  the  gum  adheres  to  the  article  to  which  it  is 
applied. 


The  choice  of  linseed  oil  is  of  peculiar  consequence  to  the  varnish- 
maker.  Oil  from  fine  full-grown  ripe  seed,  when  viewed  in  a  vial, 
will  appear  limpid,  pale,  and  brilliant ;  it  is  mellow  and  sweet  to  the 
taste,  has  very  little  smell,  is  specifically  ligliter  than  impure  oil,  and, 
when  clarified,  dries  quickly  and  lirmly,  and  does  not  materially 
change  the  color  of  the  varnish  when  made,  but  appears  limpid  and 
brilliant. 


The  following  are  the  chief  Resins  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
Varnishes. 


AMBER. 

This  resin  is  most  distinguished  for  durability.  It  is  usually  of 
some  shade  of  yellow,  transparent,  hard,  and  moderately  tough. 
Heated  in  air,  it  fuses  at  about  51'J"  ;  it  burns  with  a  clear  flame, 
emitting  a  pleasant  odor. 

ANIME. 

This  is  imported  from  the  East  Indies.  The  large,  transparent, 
pale-yellow  pieces,  with  vitreous  fracture,  arc  best  suited  for  var- 
nish. Inferior  qualities  arc  employed  for  manufacturing  gold-size  or 
japan-black.  Although  superior  to  amber  in  its  capacity  for  drying, 
and  equal  in  hardness,  varnish  made  from  anime  deepens  in  color  on 
exposure  to  air,  and  is  very  liable  to  crack.  It  is,  however,  much 
used  for  mixing  with  copal  varnish. 

BENZOIN. 

This  is  a  gum-resin  but  little  used  in  varnishes,  on  account  of  ita 
costliness. 

COLOPUONY. 

This  resin  is  synonymous  with  arcanson  and  rosin.  When  the 
resinous  juice  of  Pinus  sylvcjiiris  and  otlier  varieties  is  distilled, 
colophony  remains  in  the  retort.  Its  dark  color  is  due  to  the  action 
of  the  fire.  Dissolved  in  linseed  oil,  or  in  tiy-pentiue  by  tlic  aid  ol 
heat,  colophony  forms  a  brilliant,  liai'd,  but  brittle  varnish. 

COPAL. 

Tliis  is  a  gum-resin  of  immense  importance  to  the  varnisli-m;iker. 
It  consists  of  several  minor  resins  of  dillcrent  degrees  of  solubility. 


VARNISHES.  57 

In  durability,  it  is  only  second  to  amber.  When  made  into  varnish, 
the  better  sorts  become  lighter  in  color  by  exposure  to  air. 

Copal  is  generally  imported  in  lai'ge  lumps  about  the  size  of  pota- 
toes. The  clearest  and  palest  are  selected  for  what  is  called  body- 
yum ;  the  second  best  forms  carrioije-gum. ;  'whilst  the  residue,  freed 
from  the  many  impurities  with  which  it  is  associatedj  constitutes 
worst  quality,  fitted  only  for  japan-lilack  or  gold-size. 

In  alcohol,  copal  is  but  little  soluble  ;  but  it  is  said  to  become 
more  so  by  reducing  it  to  a  fine  powder,  and  exposing  it  to  atmos- 
pheric influences  for  twelve  mouths.  Boiling  alcohol  or  spirit  of 
turpentine,  when  poured  upon  fused  copal,  accomplishes  its  complete 
solution,  provided  the  solvent  be  not  added  in  too  large  proportions 
at  a  time.  The  addition  of  camphor  also  promotes  the  solubility  of 
copal  ;  so  liliewise  does  oil  of  rosemai'y. 

DAMMARA. 

This  is  a  tasteless,  inodorous,  whitish  resin,  easily  soluble  in  oils. 
It  is  not  so  hard  as  mastic,  with  which  it  forms  a  good  admixture. 

ELEMI. 

This  is  a  resin  of  a  yellow  color,  semi-transparent,  and  of  fiiint 
fragrance.  Of  the  two  resins  which  it  contains,  one  is  crystallizable 
and  soluble  in  cold  alcohol. 

LAC. 

This  constitutes  the  basis  of  spirit-varnish.  The  resin  is  soluble 
in  strong  alcohol  aided  by  heat.  Its  solution  in  ammonia  may  be 
used  as  a  varnish,  when  the  articles  coated  with  it  are  not  exposed 
more  than  an  hour  or  two  at  a  time  to  water. 

MASTIC. 

This  is  a  soft  resin  of  considerable  lustre.  The  two  sorts  in  com- 
merce are,  in  tears  and  the  eormnon  mastic  ;  the  former  is  the  purer 
of  the  two.  It  consists  of  two  resins,  one  of  which  is  soluble  in  di- 
lute alcohol.  Witli  oil  of  turpentine,  it  forms  a  very  pale  varnish, 
of  great  lustre,  which  flows  readily,  and  works  easily.  Moreover,  it 
can  be  readily  removed  by  friction  with  the  hand  ;  hence  its  use  for 
delicate  work  of  every  description. 

SANDARACH. 

This  is  a  pale,  odorous  resin,  less  hard  than  lac,  with  which  it  is 
often  associated  as  a  spirit-varnish.  It  consists  of  three  resins  dififer- 
ing  as  to  solubility  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  turpentine.  It  forms  a 
good  pale  varnish  for  light-colored  woods  ;  when  required  to  be 
polished,  Venice  turpentine  is  added  to  give  it  body. 

Of  the  solvents  of  these  various  resins,  little  need  be  said.  In  the 
manufacture  of  varnishes,  great  care,  as  well  as  cleanliness,  are  re- 
quired. The  resins  should  be  washed  in  hot  water,  to  free  them  from 
particles  of  dust  and  dirt  ;  they  should  be  dried  and  assorted  accord- 


58  VARNISHES. 

ing  to  their  color,  reserving  the  lightest  shades  for  the  best  kinds  of 
varnish. 

The  linseed-oil  should  he  as  pale  colored,  and  as  -well  clarified  as 
possible.  New  oil  always  contains  mucilage,  and  moi'e  or  less  of 
foreign  matters  ;  as  these  prevent  the  regular  absorption  of  oxygen, 
the  oil  requires  preliminary  treatment.  The  common  plan  is  toboil 
it  with  litharge  ;  but  such  oil  varnish  is  inferior  to  that  prepared 
with  sulphate  of  lead. 

The  best  method  is  to  rub  up  linseed-oil  with  dry  sulphate  of  lead, 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  form  a  milky  mixture.  After  a  week's 
exposure  to  the  light,  and  frequent  shaking,  the  mucus  deposits  with 
the  sulphate  of  lead,  and  leaves  the  oil  perfectly  clear.  The  precipi- 
tated slime  forms  a  compact  membrane  over  the  lead,  hardening  to 
6uch  an  extent  that  the  clarified  oil  may  be  readily  poured  off. 

TURPEXTINE. 

This  is  of  very  extensive  use.  The  older  it  is,  the  more  ozonized, 
the  better  it  is.  Tui-pentine  varnishes  dry  much  more  readily  than 
oil  vai-nishes,  are  of  a  lighter  color,  more  flexiljle  and  cheap.  They 
are,  however,  neither  so  tough  nor  so  durable. 

ALCOHOL. 

This  is  employed  as  the  solvent  of  sandarach  and  of  lac.  The 
stronger,  cateris  paribus,  the  better. 

NAPHTHA   AND   METHYLATED   SPIRIT   OF   ^NE. 

These  arc  used  for  the  cheaper  varnishes.  Their  smell  is  disagree- 
able.   The  former  is,  however,  a  better  solvent  of  resins  than  alcohol. 

SPIRIT   VARNISHES. 

These  varnishes  may  be  readily  colored — red,  by  drasjon's  blood  ; 
yellow,  by  gamboge.  If  a  colored  varnish  is  required,  cleirly  no 
account  need  be  taken  of  the  color  of  the  resins.  Lao  varnish  may 
be  bleached  by  Mr.  Lemming's  process  :  -  Dissolve  five  ounces  of  shel- 
lac in  a  quart  of  spirit  of  wine  ;  boil  for  a  few  minutes  witli  ten 
ounces  of  well-burnt  and  recently-heated  animal  charcoal,  wlien  a 
small  quantity  of  the  solution  should  be  drawn  off  and  filtered  :  if  not 
colorless,  a  little  more  chai-coal  should  be  added.  AVhon  all  tinge  is 
removed,  press  the  liquor  through  silk,  as  linen  absorbs  more  var- 
nish ;  and  alterAvards  filter  it  through  fine  blotting-paper.  Dr.  Hare 
proceeds  as  follows  : — Dissolve  in  an  iron  kettle  about  one  part  of 
pearlash  in  about  eight  parts  of  water,  add  one  part  of  shell  or  seed 
lac,  and  heat  the  whole  to  ebullition.  When  the  lac  is  dissolved,  cool 
the  solution,  and  impregnate  it  with  chlorine  gas  till  the  lac  is  all 
precipitated.  'I  he  precipitate  is  white,  l)ut  the  color  deepens  by 
washing  and  consolidation.  Dissolved  in  alcohol,  lac  bleached  by 
this  process  yields  a  varnisli  which  is  as  free  from  color  as  any  copal 
varnish. 

One  word  in  conclusion  with  reference  to  all  spirit  varnishes.     A 


VARNISHES.  59 

damp  atmosphere  is  sufficient  to  occasion  a  milky  deposit  of  resin, 
owing  to  the  diluted  spirit  depositing  a  portion :  in  such  case  the 
varnish  is  said  to  be  chilled. 

ESSENCE   VARNISHES. 

They  do  not  differ  essentially  in  their  manufacture  from  spirit 
varnishes.  The  polish  produced  by  them  is  more  durable,  although 
they  take  a  longer  time  to  dry. 

OIL    VARNISHES. 

The  most  durable  and  lustrous  of  varnishes  are  composed  of  a  mix- 
ture of  resin,  oil,  and  spirit  of  turpentine.  The  oils  most  fi'equcntly 
employed  are  linseed  and  walnut ;  the  resins  chiefly  copal  and 
amber. 

The  drying  power  of  the  oil  having  been  increased  by  litharge, 
red-lead,  or  by  sulphate  of  lead,  and  a  judicious  selection  of  copal 
having  been  made,  it  is  necessary,  according  to  Booth,  to  bear  in 
mind  the  following  precautions  before  proceeding  to  the  manufacture 
of  varnish  : — 1.  That  oil  varnish  is  not  a  solution,  but  an  intimate 
mixture  of  resin  in  boiled  oil  and  spirit  of  turpentine.  2.  That  the 
resin  must  be  completely  fused  previous  to  the  addition  of  the  boiled 
or  prepared  oil.  3.  That  the  oil  must  be  heated  from  250°  to  300°. 
4.  That  the  spirit  of  turpentine  must  be  added  gradually,  and  in  a 
thin  stream,  while  the  mixture  of  oil  and  resin  is  still  hot.  5.  That 
the  varnish  bo  made  in  dry  weather,  otherwise  moisture  is  absorbed, 
and  its  transparency  and  drying  quality  impaired. 

The  heating  vessel  must  be  of  co^iper,  with  a  riveted  and  not  a 
soldered  bottom.  To  promote  the  admixture  of  the  copal  with  the 
hot  oil,  the  copal — carefully  selected,  and  of  nearly  uniform  fusibility 
— is  separately  heated  with  continuous  stirring  over  a  charcoal  fire. 
Good  management  is  required  to  prevent  the  copal  from  burning  or 
becoming  even  high  colored.  When  completely  fused,  the  heated 
oil  should  be  gradually  poured  in  with  constant  stirring.  The  exact 
amount  of  oil  required  must  be  determined  by  experiment.  If  a  drop 
upon  a  plate,  on  cooling,  assumes  such  a  consistency  as  to  be  pene- 
trated by  the  nail  without  cracking,  the  mixture  is  complete  ;  but  if 
it  cracks,  more  oil  must  be  added. 

The  spirit  of  turpentine  previously  heated  is  added  in  a  thin  stream 
to  the  foi'mer  mixture,  care  being  taken  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  all 
the  parts. 

LACKER. 

This  is  used  for  wood  or  brass  work,  and  is  also  a  varnish.  For 
brass,  the  proportions  are  half  a  pound  of  pale  shell-lac  to  one  gallon 
of  spirit  of  wine.  It  is  better  prepared  without  the  aid  of  heat,  by 
simple  and  repeated  agitation.  It  should  then  be  left  to  clear  itself, 
and  separated  from  the  thicker  portions  and  from  all  impurities  by 
decantation.  As  it  darkens  on  exposure  to  light,  the  latter  should  be 
excluded.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  the  color  will  be  also  modified 
by  that  of  the  lac  employed. 


60  VARNISHES. 


1.  COPAL   VARNISHEg. 

1.  Oil  of  turpentine  one  pint,  set  the  bottle  in  a  water  bath,  and 
add  in  small  portions  at  a  time,  three  ounces  of  powdered  copal  that 
has  been  previously  melted  by  a  gentle  heat,  and  dropped  into  water  ; 
in  a  few  days  decant  the  clear.  Dries  slowly,  but  is  very  pale  and 
durable.  Used  for  pictures,  &c.  2.  Pale  hard  copal  two  pounds  ; 
fuse,  add  hot  drying  oil  one  pint,  boil  as  before  directed,  and  thin 
with  oil  of  turpentine  three  pints,  or  as  much  as  sufficient.  Very 
pale.  i3/-tes  hard  in  12  to  2 J:  hours.  3.  Clearest  and  palest  African 
copal  eight  pounds  ;  fuse,  add  hot  and  pale  drying  oil  two  gallons, 
boil  till  it  strings  strongly,  cool  a  little,  and  thin  with  hot  rectified 
oU  of  turpentine  three  gallons,  and  immediately  strain  into  the  store 
can.  Very  fine.  Both  the  above  are  used  for  pictures.  4.  Coarsely- 
powdered  copal  and  glass,  of  each  four  ounces,  alcohol  of  90  per  cent 
one  pint,  camphor  one-half  ounce  ;  heat  it  in  a  water-bath  so  that  the 
bubbles  may  be  counted  as  they  rise,  observing  frequently  to  stir  the 
mixture  ;  when  cold  decant  the  clear.  Used  for  pictures.  5.  Copal 
melted  and  dropped  into  water  three  ounces,  gum  sandarach  six 
ounces,  mastic  and  Chio  turpentine  of  each  two  and  one-half  ounces, 
powdered  glass  four  ounces,  alcohol  of  85  per  cent,  one  quart ;  dis- 
solve by  a  gentle  heat.      Used  for  metal,  chairs,  &c. 

All  copal  varnishes  are  hard  and  durable,  though  less  so  than 
those  made  of  amber,  but  they  have  the  advantage  over  the  latter  of 
being  paler.  They  arc  applied  on  coaches,  pictures,  polished  metal, 
wood,  and  other  objects  requiring  good  durable  varnish. 

2.  COPAI.    VARNISn. 

Hard  copal,  300  parts  ;  drying  linseed  or  nut  oil,  from  125  to  250 
parts  ;  oil  of  turpentine,  500  ;  these  three  substances  arc  to  be  put 
into  three  separate  vessels  ;  the  copal  is  to  be  fused  by  a  somewhat 
sudden  application  of  heat;  the  drying  oil  is  to  be  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature a  little  under  ebullition,  and  is  to  be  added  by  small 
portions  at  a  time  to  the  melted  copal.  When  this  combination  is 
made,  and  the  heat  a  little  abated,  the  essence  of  turpentine,  likewise 
previously  licatcd,  is  to  be  introduced  by  degrees  ;  some  of  the  vola- 
tile oil  will  be  dissipated  at  first,  but  more  being  added,  the  union 
will  take  place.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  turpentine 
vapor  from  catching  fire,  which  might  occasion  serious  accidents  to 
the  operator.  When  the  varnish  is  made  and  has  cooled  down  to 
about  130  degrees  of  Fah.,  it  may  be  strained  through  a  filter,  to 
separate  the  impurities  and  undissolved  copal.  Almost  all  varnish 
makers  think  it  indispensable  to  combine  the  drying  oil  with  the 
copal  before  adding  the  oil  of  turpentine,  but  in  this  they  are  mis- 
taken. Boiling  oil  of  turpentine  combines  very  readily  with  fused 
copal;  ;ind,  in  some  cases,  it  would  probably  be  preferable  to  com- 
mence the  operation  with  it,  adiling  it  in  successive  small  quantities. 
Indeed,  the  whitest  copal  varnish  can  be  made  only  in  this  way  ;  for 
if  the  drying  oil  has  been  heated  to  nearly  its  boiling  point,  it 
becomes  colored,  and  darkens  the  varnish. 


VARNISHES.  61 

This  varnish  improves  in  clearness  by  keeping.  Its  consistence 
may  be  varietJ  by  vai-ying  the  proportions  of  the  ingi'edients  -R-ithin 
moderate  limits.  Good  varnish,  applied  in  summer,  should  become 
so  dry  in  twentj^-four  hours  that  the  dust  ■will  not  stick  to  it  nor  re- 
ceive an  impression  from  the  fingers.  To  render  it  suificiently  dry 
and  hard  for  polishing,  it  must  be  subjected  for  several  days  to  the 
heat  of  a  stove. 

3.      COPAL   TAKNISHES, 

1.  Melt  in  an  iron  pan  at  a  slow  heat,  copal  gum,  powdered,  eight 
parts,  and  add  balsam  copaiva,  pi-eviously  warmed,  two  parts.  Then 
remove  from  the  fii-e,  and  add  spirits  of  turpentine,  also  warmed  be- 
forehand, ten  parts,  to  give  the  necessary  consistence.  2.  Prepared 
gum  copal  ten  parts,  gum  mastic  two  parts,  finely  powdered,  are 
mixed  with  white  turpentine  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  of  each  one  part, 
at  a  slow  heat,  and  with  spirits  of  turpentine  twenty  parts.  3.  Pre- 
pared gum-copal  ten  parts,  white  turpentine  two  parts,  dissolve  in 
spirits  of  turpentine. 

Gum-copal  is  prepared  or  made  more  soluble  in  spirits  of  turpentine, 
by  melting  the  powdered  crude  gum,  afterwards  again  powdering, 
and  allowing  to  stand  for  some  time  loosely  covered. 

CABINET   VARNISH. 

Copal,  fused,  fourteen  pounds  ;  linseed  oil,  hot,  one  gallon  ;  tur- 
pentine, hot,  three  gallons.  Properly  boiled,  such  a  varnish  will  dry 
in  ten  minutes. 

TABLE   VARNISH. 

Damma  resin,  one  pound  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  two  pounds  ; 
camphor,  two  hundred  grains.  Digest  the  mixture  for  twenty-four 
houi's.     The  decanted  portion  is  fit  for  immediate  use. 

COMBION   TABLE   VARNISH. 

Oil  of  turpentine,  one  pound;  bees'  wax,  two  ounces  ;  colophony, 
one  drachm. 

COPAL   VARNISH   FOR   INSIDE   WORK. 

1.  Pounded  and  oxidixed  copal,  twentj'-four  parts;  spirit  of  tur- 
pentine, forty  parts  ;  camphor,  one  part. — 2.  Flexible  Copal  Var- 
nish. Copal  in  powder,  sixteen  parts;  camphor,  two  parts;  oil  of 
lavender,  ninety  parts,  it- 

Dissolve  the  camphor  in  the  oil,  heat  the  latter,  and  stu"  in  the  co- 
pal in  sucoessive  portions  until  complete  solution  takes  place.  Thin 
with  sufiicient  turpentine  to  make  it  of  proper  consistence. 

BEST    BODY    COPAL    VARNISH    FOR    COACH    MAKERS,    &C. 

This  is  intended  for  the  body  parts  of  coaches  and  other  similar 

vehicles,  intended  for  polishing.     Fuse  eight  lbs.  of  fine  African 

gum  copal,  and  two  gallons  of  clarified  oil,  boil  it  very  slowly  for 

four  or  five  hours,  until  quite  stringy,  mis  with  three  gallons  and  a 

6 


G2  VAKNISHES. 

half  of  turpentine  ;  strain  off  and  pour  it  into  a  cistern.  If  this  ia 
too  slow  in  drying,  coach-makers,  painters  and  varnish-makers  have 
introduced  to  two  pots  of  the  preceding  varnish,  one  made  as  follows  : 
eight  lbs.  of  fine  pale  gum-anime,  two  gallons  of  clarified  oil  and 
three  and  a  half  gallons  of  turpentine.     To  be  boiled  four  hours. 

COP.il.   POLISH. 

Digest  or  shake  finely  powdered  gum  copal  four  parts,  and  gum 
camphor  one  part,  with  ether  to  form  a  semi-fluid  mass,  and  then 
digest  with  a  suflicient  quantity  of  alcohol. 

WHITE    SPIRIT    V^iENISH. 

Sandarach,  250  parts  ;  mastic,  in  tears,  64  ;  elemi  resin,  32  ; 
turpentine,  64  ;  alcohol  of  85  per  cent,  1000  parts,  by  measure. 
The  tui'pentLne  is  to  be  added  after  the  resins  are  dissolved.  This  is 
a  brilliant  varnish,  but  not  so  hard  as  to  bear  polishing. 

WHITE    HARD    SPIRIT    VARNISHES. 

1.  Gum  sandarach  five  pounds,  camphor  one  ounce,  rectified  spirit 
(65  over  pi'oof )  two  gallons,  washed  and  dried  coarsely-pounded  glass 
two  pounds  ;  proceed  as  in  making  mastic  varnish  ;  when  strained 
add  one  quart  of  very  pale  turpentine  varnish.  Very  fine.  2.  Picked 
mastic  and  coarsely-ground  glass,  of  each,  four  ounces,  sandarach 
and  pale  clear  Venice  turpentine,  of  each  three  ounces,  alcohol  two 
pounds  ;  as  last.  3.  Gum  sandarach  one  pound,  clear  Strasburgh 
turpentine  six  ounces,  rectified  spirit  (65  over  proof)  three  pints  ; 
dissolve.  4.  Elastic  in  tears  two  ounces,  sandarach  eight  ounces,  gum 
elemi  one  ounce,  Strasburgh  or  Scio  turpentine  (genuine)  four  ounces, 
rectified  spirit  (65  over  proof)  one  quart.  Used  on  metals,  &c. 
Polishes  well. 

WHITE   V.AJRNISn. 

1.  Tender  copal  seven  and  one-half  ounces,  camphor  one  ounce, 
alcohol  of  95  per  cent,  one  (juart  ;  dissolve,  then  add  mastic  two 
ounces,  Venice  turpentine  one  ounce  ;  dissolve  and  strain.  Very 
white,  drying,  and  capable  of  being  polished  when  hard.  Used  for 
toys.  2.  Sandarach  eight  ounces,  mastic  two  ounces,  Canada  balsam 
four  ounces,  alcohol  one  quart.     Used  on  paper,  wood,  or  linen. 

SOFT   BBILLI^VNT   VARNISH. 

Sandarach  six  ounces,  elemi  (genuine)  four  ounces,  anime  one 
ounce,  camphor  one-half  ounce,  rectified  spi-it  one  quart ;  as  before. 

The  above  spirit  varnislies  are  chiefly  applieil  to  olijects  of  the  toil- 
ette, as  work-boxes,  card-cases,  &c.,  but  are  also  suitable  to  other 
articles,  whether  of  paper,  wood,  linen,  or  metal,  that  require  a  bril- 
liant and  (juick-drying  varnish.  Tliey  mostly  dry  almost  as  soon  as 
applied,  and  arc  usually  hard  enough  to  polish  in  24  hours.  Spirit 
varnishes  arc  less  durable  and  more  liable  to  crack  than  oil  varnishes. 


VARNISHES. 


BEOWN   HARD   SPIRIT  VARNISHES. 


1.  Sandaracli  four  ounces,  pale  ^ted-lac  two  ounces,  elemi  (true) 
one  ounce,  alcohol  one  quart  ;  digest  with  agitation  till  dissolved,  then 
add  Venice  turpentine  two  ounces.  2.  Gum  sandai-ach  three  pounds, 
shellac  two  pounds,  rectified  spirit,  (65  over  proof,)  two  gallons  ;  dis- 
solve, add  turpentine  varnish  one  quart  ;  agitate  well  and  strain. 
Very  fine.  3.  Sead-lac  and  yellow  resin,  of  each  one  and  one-half 
pounds,  rectified  spirit  two  gallons. 

TO    PREPARE    A    VARXISH    TOR    COATING    BtETALS. 

Digest  one  part  of  bruised  copal  in  two  parts  of  absolute  alcohol; 
but  as  this  varnish  diies  too  quickly  it  is  preferable  to  take  one  part 
of  copal,  one  part  of  oil  of  rosemary,  and  two  or  three  parts  of  ab- 
solute alcohol.  This  gives  a  clear  varnish  as  limped  as  water.  It 
should  be  applied  hot,  and  when  dry  it  will  be  found  hard  and 
durable. 

TO    VARNISH    ARTICLES    OF    IRON    AND    STEEL. 

Dissolve  10  parts  of  clear  grains  of  mastic,  5  parts  of  camphor,  15 
parts  of  sandarach,  and  5  of  elemi,  in  a  sufiicient  quantity  of  alcohol, 
and  apply  this  varnish  without  heat.  The  articles  will  not  only  be 
preserved  from  rust,  but  the  varnish  wUl  retain  its  transparency 
and  the  metallic  brilliancy  of  the  articles  will  not  be  obscured. 

VARNISH    FOR    IRON    WORK. 

Dissolve,  in  about  two  lbs.  of  tar  oil,  half  a  pound  of  asphaltum, 
and  a  like  quantity  of  pounded  i-esin,  mix  hot  in  an  iron  kettle,  care 
being  taken  to  prevent  any  contact  with  the  flame.  When  cold  the 
varnish  is  ready  for  use.  This  varnish  is  for  out-door  wood  and  iron 
work,  not  for  japanning  leather  or  cloth. 

BLACK  VARNISH  FOR  IRON  "WORK. 

Asphaltum  forty-eight  pounds,  fuse,  add  boiled  oil  ten  gallons,  red 
lead  and  litharge,  of  each  seven  pounds,  dried  and  powdered  white 
copperas  three  pounds,  boil  for  two  hours,  then  add  dark  gum  amber 
(fused)  eight  pounds,  hot  linseed  oil  two  gallons,  boil  for  two  hours 
longer,  or  till  a  little  of  the  mass,  when  cooled,  may  be  rolled  into 
pills,  then  withdraw  the  heat,  and  afterwards  thin  down  with  oil  of 
turpentine  thirty  gallons.  Used  for  the  ironwork  of  carriages,  and 
other  nice  purposes. 

BRONZE  VARNISH   FOR   STATUARY. 

Cut  best  hard  soap  fifty  parts,  into  fine  shavings,  dissolve  in  boil- 
ing water  two  parts,  to  which  add  the  solution  of  blue  vitriol  fifteen 
parts,  in  pure  water  sixty  parts.  Wash  the  coi^per-soap  with  water, 
dry  it  at  a  very  slow  heat,  and  dissolve  it  in  spirits  of  turpentine. 


64  VARNISHES. 


AMBER   VARNISHES. 

1.  Amber  one  pound,  pale  bftilecl  oil  ten  ounces,  turpentine  one 
pint.  Render  the  amber,  placed  in  an  iron  pot,  semiliquid  by  heat ; 
then  add  the  oil,  mix,  remove  it  from  the  fire,  and  when  cooled  a 
a  little,  stir  in  the  turpentine.  2.  To  the  amber,  melted  as  above, 
add  two  ounces  of  shellac,  and  proceed  as  before. 

This  vai'nisli  is  rather  dai'k,  but  remarkably  tough.  The  first  form 
is  the  best.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  copal  varnish,  and 
forms  an  excellent  article  for  covering  wood,  or  any  other  substance 
not  of  a  white  or  very  pale  color.  It  dries  well,  and  is  very  hard 
and  durable. 

AMBER   VARNISn,    BLACK. 

Amber  one  pound,  boiled  oil  one-half  pint,  powdered  asphaltum 
six  ounces,  oil  of  turpentine  one  pint.  Melt  the  amber,  as  before 
described,  then  add  the  asphaltum,  previously  mixed  with  the  cold 
oil,  and  afterwards  heated  very  hot,  mix  well,  remove  the  vessel  from 
the  fire,  and  when  cooled  a  little  add  the  turpentine,  also  made  warm. 

Each  of  the  above  varnishes  should  be  reduced  to  a  proper  con- 
sistence with  more  turpentine  if  required.  The  last  form  produces 
the  beautiful  black  varnish  used  by  the  coachmakers.  Some  manu- 
facturers omit  the  whole  or  part  of  the  asjahaltum,  and  use  the  same 
quantity  of  clear  black  rosin  instead,  in  which  case  the  color  is 
brought  up  by  lampblack  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  or  pre- 
viously ground  very  fine  with  a  little  boiled  oil.  The  varnish  made 
in  tliis  way,  lacks,  however,  that  richness,  brilliancy,  and  depth  of 
blackness  imparted  by  asphaltum. 

AMBER   VARNISHES. 

1.  {Pale.)  Amber  pale  and  transparent  six  pounds,  fuse,  add  hot 
clarified  linseed  oil  two  gallons,  boil  till  it  strings  strongly,  cool  a 
little,  and  add  oil  of  turpentine  four  gallons.  Pale  as  copal  vai'uish  ; 
soon  becomes  very  hard,  and  is  the  most  durable  of  oil  varnishes  ; 
but  requires  time  before  it  is  fit  for  polishing.  When  wanted  to  dry 
and  harden  quicker,  "  drying  "  oil  maybe  substituted  for  linseed, 
or  "  driers  "  may  be  added  during  the  boiling.  2.  Amber  one  pound; 
melt,  add  Scio  turpentine  one-half  pound,  transparent  white  resin 
two  ounces,  hot  linseed  oil  one  pint,  and  afterwards  oil  of  tui'pcntine 
as  much  as  sufficient  ;  as  above.  Very  tough.  8.  {Hard.)  Melted 
amber  four  ounces,  hot  boiled  oil  one  quart ;  as  before.  4.  (Pale.) 
Very  pale  and  transparent  amber  four  ounces,  clarified  linseed  oil  and 
oil  of  turpentine,  of  each  one  pint ;  as  before. 

Amber  varnish  is  suited  for  all  purposes,  where  a  very  hard  and 
durable  oil  varnish  is  required.  The  paler  kind  is  superior  to  copal 
varnish,  and  is  often  mixed  with  the  latter  to  increase  its  hardness 
and  durability. 

BLACK   VARNISH. 

Heat  to  boiling  linseed  oil  varnish  ten  parts,  with  burnt  umber 
two  parts,  ami  powdered  asphaltum  one  part,  and  when  cooled  dilute 
with  spirits  of  turpentine  to  the  required  consistence. 


VARNISHES.  65 


VAENISH    FOU    CERT.4JN    PARTS    OF    CARRIAGES. 

Sandarach,  190  parts  ;  pale  shellac,  95  ;  resin,  125  ;  turpentine, 
190  ;  alcohol,  at  85  per  cent,  1000  parts,  by  measure. 

COACH   VARNISH. 

Mix  sheUac  sixteen  parts,  white  turpentine  three  parts,  lamp- 
black sufficient  quantity,  and  digest  with  alcohol  ninety  parts,  oil 
of  lavender  four  parts. 

MAHOGANY   VARNISH. 

Sorted  gum-anime  eight  pounds,  clarified  oil  three  gallons,  litharge 
and  powdered  dried  sugar  of  lead,  of  each  one-fourth  pound  ;  boil  till 
it  strings  well,  then  cool  a  little,  thia  with  oil  of  turpentine  five  and 
one-half  gallons,  and  strain. 

VARNISH    FOR    CABINET    MAKERS. 

Pale  shellac,  750  parts  ;  mastic,  64  ;  alcohol,  of  90  per  cent, 
1000  parts  by  measure.  The  solution  is  made  in  the  cold,  with  the 
aid  of  frequent  stirring.  It  is  always  muddy,  and  is  employed 
without  being  filtered.  With  the  same  resins  and  proof  spirit  a  var- 
nish is  made  for  the  bookbinders  to  do  over  their  morocco  leather. 

CEMENT   VARNISH  FOR  WATER-TIGHT   LUTING. 

White  turpentine  fourteen  parts,  shellac  eighteen  parts,  resin  six 
parts,  digest  with  alcohol  eighty  parts. 

THE   VARNISH   OF  WATIN  FOR   GILDED   ARTICLES. 

Gum-lac,  in  grain,  125  parts  ;  gamboge,  125  ;  dragon's  blood, 
125  ;  annotto,  125  ;  saffron,  32.  Each  resin  must  be  dissolved  in 
1000  parts  by  measure,  of  alcohol  of  90  per  cent ;  two  separate  tinc- 
tures must  be  made  with  the  dragon's  blood  and  annotto,  in  1000 
parts  of  such  alcohol ;  and  a  proper  proportion  of  each  should  be  added 
to  the  varnish,  according  to  the  shade  of  golden  color  wanted. 

CHEAP  OAK  VARNISH. 

Clear  pale  resin  three  and  one-half  pounds,  oil  of  turpentine  one 
gallon  ;  dissolve.  It  may  be  colored  darker  by  adding  a  little  fine 
lampblack. 

VARNISH    FOR  WOOD-WORK. 

Powdered  gum  sandarach  eight  parts,  gum  mastic  two  parts, 
seed-lac  eight  parts,  and  digest  in  a  warm  place  for  some  days  with 
alcohol  twenty-four  parts,  and  finally,  dilute  with  sufficient  alcohol 
to  the  required  consistence. 

DARK   VARNISH   FOR   LIGHT   WOOD-WORK. 

Pound  up  and  digest  shellac  sixteen  parts,  gum  sandarach  thirty- 
two  parts,  gum    mastic  (juniper)  eight   parts,    gum  elemi    eight 
6* 


66  VARNISHES. 

parts,  dragon's  blood  four  parts,  annotto  one  part,  -with  white  tur-. 
pentine  sixteen  parts,  and  alcohol  two  hundred  and  fifty-six.  Di- 
lute with  alcohol  if  required. 

VARNISH   FOR   INSTRUMENTS. 

Digest  seed-lac  one  part,  with  alcohol  seven  parts,  and  filter. 

VARNISn    FOR    THE    WOOD   TOYS     OF    SPA. 

Tender  copal,  75  parts  ;  mastic,  12.5  ;  Venice  turpentine,  6.5  ; 
alcohol,  of  95  per  cent,  100  parts  by  measure  ;  water  ounces,  for 
example,  if  the  other  parts  be  taken  in  ounces.  The  alcohol  must 
be  first  made  to  act  upon  the  copal,  with  the  aid  of  a  little  oil  of  lav- 
ender or  camphor,  if  thought  fit ;  and  tlie  solution  being  passed 
through  a  linen  cloth,  the  mastic  must  be  introduced.  After  it  is 
dissolved,  the  Venice  turpentine,  previously  melted  in  a  water-bath, 
sliould  be  added  ;  the  lower  the  temperature  at  which  these  operations 
are  carried  on,  the  more  beautiful  will  the  varnish  be.  This  varnish 
ought  to  be  very  white,  very  drying,  and  capable  of  being  smoothed 
with  pumice-stone  and  polished. 

VARNISHES  FOR  FURNITURE. 

The  simplest,  and  perhaps  the  best,  is  the  solution  of  shellac  only, 
but  many  add  gums  sandarach,  mastic,  copal,  arabic,  benjamin,  &c., 
from  the  idea  tliat  they  contribute  to  the  effect.  Gum  arabic  is  cer- 
tainly never  required  if  tlic  solvent  be  pure,  ])ecause  it  is  insoluble  in 
either  rectified  spirit  or  rectified  wood  naplitha,  tlie  menstrua  cm- 
ployed  in  dissolving  the  gums.  As  spirit  is  seldom  used  on  account 
of  its  expense,  most  of  the  following  are  mentioned  as  solutions  in 
naphtha,  but  spirit  can  be  substituted  when  thought  proper. 

1.  Shellac  one  and  a  lialf  pounds,  naphtha  one  gallon  ;  dissolve, 
and  it  is  ready  without  filtering.  2.  Shellac  twelve  ounces,  copal 
three  ounces,  (lu*  an  equivalent  of  varnish);  dissolve  in  one  gallon  of 
naphtha.  3.  Shellac  one  and  a  half  pounds,  seed-lac  and  sandarach 
each  four  ounces,  mastic  two  ounces,  rectified  spirit  one  gallon  ;  dis- 
solve. 4.  Shellac  two  pounds,  l)onzoin  four  ounces,  spirit  one  gal- 
lon. 5.  Shellac  ten  ounces,  seed-lac,  sandarach,  and  coi)al  varnish 
of  each,  six  ounces,  benzoin  three  ounces,  naphtha  one  gallon. 

To  darken  polisii,  benzoin  and  di-agon's-blood  ai-e  used,  turmeric 
and  otlier  coloring  matters  are  also  added  ;  and  to  make  it  lighter  it 
is  necessary  to  use  bleached  lac,  thougli  some  endeavor  to  give 
this  effect  ))y  adding  oxalic  acid  to  the  ingredients,  it,  like  gum 
arabic,  is  insoluble  in  good  spirit  or  naphtha.  Fur  all  ordinary  pur- 
poses the  first  form  is  best  and  least  troublesome,  while  its  appearance 
is  equal  to  any  other. 

TO   FRENCH   POLISH. 

The  wood  must  be  placed  level,  and  sand-papered  until  it  is  quite 
smooth,  otlicrwise  it  will  7iol  polish.  Tiien  provide  a  rubber  of  cloth, 
list,  or  sponge,  wrap  it  in  a  soft  rag,  so  as  to  leave  a  liandlo  .at  tlio 
back  for  your  hand,  shake  the  bottle  against  the  rubber,  and  in  tho 


VARNISHES. 


67 


middle  of  the  varnisli  on  the  rag  place  with  your  finger  a  little  raw 
linseed  oil.  Now  commence  rubbing,  in  small  circular  strokes,  and 
continue  until  the  pores  are  filled,  charging  the  rubber  with  varnish 
and  oil  as  required,  until  the  whole  wood  has  had  one  coat.  When 
dry  repeat  the  process  once  or  twice  until  the  surface  appears  even 
and  fine,  between  each  coat  using  fine  sand-paper  to  smooth  down  all 
irregularities.  Lastly,  use  a  clean  rubber  with  a  little  strong  alcohol 
only,  which  will  remove  the  oil  and  the  cloudiness  it  causes  ;  whea 
the  work  will  be  complete. 

FURNITURE   POLISHES. 

New  wood  is  often  French-polished.  Or  the  following  may  be  tried  : 
Melt  tlu'ee  or  four  pieces  of  sandarach,  each  the  size  of  a  walnut, 
add  one  pint  of  boiled  oil,  and  boil  together  for  one  hour.  While  cool- 
ing add  one  drachm  of  Venice  turpentine,  and  if  too  thick  a  little  oil 
of  turpentine  also.  Apply  this  all  over  the  furniture ,  and  after  some 
hours  rub  it  off ;  rub  the  furniture  daily,  without  applying  fresh  var- 
nish, except  about  once  in  two  months.  Water  does  not  injure  this 
polish,  and  any  stain  or  scratch  may  be  again  covered,  which  cannot 
be  done  with  French-polish. 

FURNITURE   GLOSS. 

To  give  a  gloss  to  household  fuimiture,  various  compositions  are 
used,  known  as  wax,  polish,  creams,  pastes,  oils,  &c.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  forms  used  : 

FURNITURE   CREAM. 

Bees-wax  one  pound,  soap  four  ounces,  pearlash  two  ounces,  soft 
water  one  gallon  ;  boil  together  until  mixed. 

FURNITURE   OILS. 

1.  Acetic  acid  two  drachms,  oil  of  lavender  one-half  drachm, 
rectified  spirit  one  drachm,  linseed  oil  four  ounces.  2.  Linseed  oil 
one  pint,  alkanet  root  two  ounces  ;  heat,  strain,  and  add  lac  varnish 
one  ounce.  3.  Linseed  oil  one  pint,  rectified  spirit  two  ounces, 
butter  of  antimony  four  ounces. 

FURNITURE   PASTES. 

1.  Bees-wax,  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  linseed  oil,  equal  parts  ; 
melt  and  cool.  2.  Bees-wax  four  ounces,  turpentine  ten  ounces, 
alkanet  root  to  color  ;  melt  and  strain.  3.  Bees-wax  one  pound, 
linseed  oil  five  ounces,  alkanet  root  one-half  ounce  ;  melt,  add  five 
ounces  of  turpentine,  strain  and  cool.  4.  Bees-wax  four  ounces, 
resin  one  ounce,  oil  of  turpentine  two  ounces,  Venetian  red  to  color. 

ETCHING   VARNISHES. 

1.  White  wax,  two  ounces  ;  black  and  Burgundy  pitch,  of  each 
one-half  ounce  ;  melt  together,  add  by  degrees  powdered  asphaltum 
two  ounces,  and  boil  till  a  drop  taken  out  on  a  plate  will  break 
when  cold  by  being  bent  double  two  or  three  times  between  the  fin- 


68  VAKNISHES. 

gers  ;  it  must  then  be  poured  into  warm  water  and  made  into  small 
balls  for  use.  2.  (if(//-(2  F"ar«is/i.)  Linseed  oil  and  mastic,  of  each 
four  ounces  ;  melt  together.  3.  {Soft  Varnish.)  Soft  linseed  oil, 
four  ounces  ;  gum  benzoin  and  white  wax,  of  each  one-half  ounce  ; 
boil  to  two-thirds. 

VAKXISH   FOR   ENGKAVINGS,   MAPS,   ETC. 

Digest  gum  sandarach  twenty  parts,  gum  mastic  eight  parts, 
camphor  one  part,  with  alcohol  forty-eight  parts.  The  map  or  en- 
graving must  previously  receive  one  or  two  coats  of  gelatine. 

VAKNISH   TO   FIX   ENGRAVINGS   OR   LITHOGRAPHS   ON   WOOD. 

For  fixing  engravings  or  lithographs  upon  wood,  a  varnish  called 
mordant  is  used""  in  France,  which  difl'ers  from  others  chiefly  in  contain- 
ing more  Venice  turpentine,  to  make  it  sticky  ;  it  consists  of  sanda- 
rach, 250  parts  ;  mastic  in  tears,  <Ji  ;  rosin,  125  ;  Venice  turpentine, 
250  ;  alcohol,  1000  parts  by  measure. 

VARNISHES   FOR  OIL   PAINTINGS   ^iJN'D   LITHOGRAPHS. 

1.  Dextrine  2  parts,  alcohol  1  part,  water  6  parts.  2.  Varnish 
for  drawmgs  and  lithographs  :  dextrine  2  parts,  alcohol  h  part, 
water  2  parts.  These  should  be  prepared  previously  with  two  or 
three  coats  of  thin  starch  or  rice  boiled  and  strained  through  a  cloth. 

VARNISH   FOR    OIL    PAINTINGS. 

Digest  at  a  slow  heat  gum  sandarach  two  parts,  gum  mastic  four 
parts,  balsam  copaiva  two  parts,  white  turpentine  three  parts,  with 
Bpirits  of  turpentine  four  parts,  alcohol  (95  per  cent)  50-56  parts. 

BEAUTIFUL    VARNISH    FOR    PAINTINGS    AND    PICTURES. 

Honey,  1  pint;  the  whites  of  two  dozen  fresh  hen's  eggs;  1  ounce 
of  good  clean  isinglass,  20  grains  of  hydrate  of  potassium,  i  ounce 
of  chloride  of  sodium ;  mix  together  over  a  gentle  heat  of  80  or  90 
degrees  Fah. ;  be  careful  not  to  let  the  mixture  remain  long  enough 
to°oagulate  the  albumen  of  the  eggs  ;  stir  the  mixture  thoroughly, 
then  b'ottle.  It  is  to  be  applied  as  follows  :  one  table  spoonful  of  the 
varnish  added  to  half  a  table  spoonful  of  good  oil  of  turpentine, 
then  spread  on  the  picture  as  soon  as  mixed. 

MILK   OF   VfAX. 

Milk  of  wax  is  a  valuable  varnish,  which  may  be  prepared  as  fol- 
lows:—Melt  in  a  porcelain  capsule  a  certain  quantity  of  white  wax, 
and  add  to  it,  while  in  fusion,  an  equal  <iuantity  of  spirit  of  wine,  of 
sp.  grav.  0-830  ;  stir  the  mixture,  and  pour  it  upon  a  large  porphyry 
Blab.  The  granular  mass  is  to  be  converted  into  a  paste  by  the  mul- 
ler,  with  the  addition,  from  time  to  time,  of  a  little  alcohol ;  and  as 
Boon  as  it  appears  to  be  smooth  and  homogeneous,  water  is  to  be  in- 
troduce<l  in  small  quantities  successively,  to  the  amount  of  four  times 
the  weight  of  the  wax.    This  emulsion  is  to  bo  then  passed  through 


VARNISHES.  69 

canvas,  in  order  to  separate  sucli  .particles  as  may  be  imperfectly  in- 
corporated. The  milk  of  wax,  thus  prepared,  may  be  spread  with  a 
smooth  brush  upon  the  surface  of  a  painting,  allowed  to  dry,  and  then 
fused  by  passing  a  hot  iron  (salamander)  over  its  surface.  When 
cold,  it  is  to  be  rubbed  with  a  linen  cloth  to  bring  out  the  lustre.  It 
is  to  the  unchangeable  quality  of  an  encaustic  of  this  nature,  that  the 
ancient  paintings  upon  the  walls  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  owe 
their  freshness  at  the  present  day. 

CRYSTAL  VARNISHES. 

1.  Genuine  pale  Canada  balsam  and  rectified  oil  of  turpentine, 
equal  parts  ;  mix,  place  the  bottle  in  warm  water,  agitate  well,  set  it 
aside,  in  a  moderately  warm  place,  and  in  a  week  pour  off  the  clear. 
Used  for  maps,  prints,  drawings,  and  other  articles  of  paper,  and 
also  to  prepare  tracing  paper,  and  to  transfer  engravings.  2.  Mastic 
three  ounces,  alcohol  one  pint ;  dissolve.     Used  to  fix  pencil  drawings. 

ITALIAN  VARNISHES. 

1.  Boil  Scio  turpentine  till  brittle,  powder,  and  dissolve  in  oil  of 
turpentine.  2.  Canada  balsam  and  clear  white  resin,  of  each  six 
ounces,  oil  of  turpentine  one  quart ;  dissolve.     Used  for  prints,  &c. 

WATER  VARNISH   FOR   OIL-PAINTINGS. 

Boil  bitter-apple,  freed  from  the  seeds  and  cut  five  parts,  with  rain- 
water fifty  parts,  down  to  one-half.  Strain  and  dissolve  in  the  liquor 
gum  arable  eight  parts,  and  rock-candy  four  parts,  and  lastly,  add 
one  part  of  alcohol.    Let  it  stand  for  some  days,  and  filter. 

VARNISH    FOR  PAPER-HANGINGS. 

Sandarach,  four  parts,  mastic,  seed-lac,  white  turpentine,  of  each 
two  parts,  gum  elemi  one  part,  alcohol  twenty-eight  parts.  Digest 
with  frequent  shaking,  and  filter.  Before  applying  this  varnish,  the 
paper  must  be  twice  painted  over  with  a  solution  of  white  gelatine, 
and  dried. 

book-binders'  varnish. 

Shellac  eight  parts,  gum  benzoin  three  parts,  gum  mastic  two 
parts,  bruise,  and  digest  in  alcohol  forty-eight  parts,  oil  of  lavender 
one-half  part.  Or,  digest  shellac  four  parts,  gum  mastic  two  parts, 
gum  dammar  and  white  turpentine  of  each  one  part,  with  alcohol 
(95  per  cent)  twenty-eight  parts. 

TO    VARNISH   CARDWORK. 

Before  varnishing  cardwork,  it  must  receive  two  or  three  coats  of 
size,  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  the  varnish,  and  any  injury  to  the 
design.  The  size  may  be  made  by  dissolving  a  little  isinglass  in  hot 
water,  or  by  boiling  some  parchment  cuttings  until  dissolved.  In 
either  case  the  solution  must  be  strained  through  a  piece  of  clean 
muslin,  and  for  very  nice  purposes,  should  be  clarified  with  a  little 


70  VARNISHES. 

■white  of  egg.  A  small  clean  brush,  called  by  painters  a  sash  tool,  is 
the  best  for  applying  the  size,  as  well  as  the  varnish.  A  light  deli- 
cate touch  must  be  adopted,  especially  for  the  first  coat,  least  the 
ink  or  colors  be  started,  or  smothered. 

SIZE,    OR   VARNISH,    FOR   PRINTERS,   ETC. 

Best  pale  glue  and  white  curd  soap,  of  each  4  ounces  ;  hot  water  3 
pints  ;  dissolve,  then  add  powdered  alum  2  ounces.  Used  to  size 
prints  and  pictures  before  coloring  them. 

VARNISH   FOR   BRICK  WALLS. 

A  varnish  made  with  one  pound  of  sulphur  boiled  for  half  an  hour 
in  an  iron  vessel  is  a  perfect  protection  from  damp  to  brick  walls.  It 
should  be  applied  with  a  brush,  while  warm. 

MASTIC   VARNISHES. 

1.  (Fine.)  Very  pale  and  picked  gum  mastic  five  pounds,  glass 
pounded  as  small  as  barley,  and  well  washed  and  dried  two  and  one- 
half  pounds,  rectified  turpentine  two  gallons  ;  put  them  into  a  clean 
four  gallon  stone  or  tin  bottle,  bung  down  securely,  and  keep  rolling 
it  backwards  and  forwards  pretty  smartly  on  a  counter  or  any  other 
solid  place  for  at  least  four  hours  ;  when,  if  the  gum  is  all  dissolved, 
the  varnish  may  be  decanted,  strained  through  muslin  into  another 
bottle,  and  allowed  to  settle.  It  should  be  kept  for  six  or  nine  months 
before  use,  as  it  thereby  gets  both  tougher  and  clearer.  2.  (Second 
Quulity.)  Mastic  eight  pounds,  turpentine  four  gallons  ;  dissolve  by 
a  gentle  heat,  and  add  pale  turpentine  varnish  one-half  gallon. 
8.  Gum  mastic  six  ounces,  oil  of  turpentine  one  quart  ;  dissolve. 

Mastic  varnish  is  used  for  pictures,  &c.  ;  when  good,  it  is  tough, 
hard,  brilliant,  and  colorless.  Should  it  get  "  chilled,"  one  pound 
of  well-washed  silicious  sand  should  be  made  moderately  hot,  and 
added  to  each  gallon,  which  must  then  be  well  agitated  for  five  min- 
utes, and  afterwards  allowed  to  settle. 

INDIA-RUBBER  VARNISHES. 

1.  Cut  up  one  pound  of  India  rubber  into  small  pieces  and  diffuse 
in  half  a  pound  of  sul]ihuvic  ether,  which  is  done  by  digesting  in  a 
glass  flask  on  a  sand  b;itli.  Then  add  one  pound  pale  linseed  oil  var- 
nish, previously  heated,  and  after  settling,  one  jjound  of  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, also  heated  beforehand.  Filter,  while  yet  warm,  into  bottles. 
Dries  slowly. 

2!  Two  ounces  India  rubber  finely  divided  and  digested  in  the  same 
way,  with  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  camphcnc,  and  lialf  an  ounce  of 
na]ilitlia  or  benzole.  "When  dissolved  add  one  ounce  of  copal  varnish, 
which  renders  it  more  durable.     Principally  for  gilding. 

3.  In  a  wide  mouthed  glass  bottle,  digest  two  ounces  of  India  rub- 
ber in  fine  shavings,  with  one  pound  of  oil  of  turpontiiio,  during  two 
days,  without  shaking,  then  stir  up  Avith  a  wooden  spatula.    Add 


VARNISHES.  71 

another  pound  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  digest,  with  frequent  agitation, 
until  all  is  dissolved.  Then  mix  a  pound  and  a  half  of  this  solution 
with  two  pounds  of  very  white  copal-oil  varnish,  and  a  pound  and  a 
half  of  well  boiled  linseed  oil,  shake  and  digest  in  a  sand  bath,  until 
they  have  united  into  a  good  varnish. — For  morocco  leather. 

4.  Four  ounces  India  rubber  in  fine  shavings  are  dissolved  in  a 
covered  jar  by  means  of  a  sand  bath,  in  two  pounds  of  crude  benzole, 
and  then  mixed  with  four  pounds  of  hot  linseed  oil  varnish,  and  a 
half  pound  of  oil  of  turpentine.     Dries  very  well. 

5.  Flexible  Varnish. — Melt  one  pound  of  rosin,  and  add  gradually 
half  a  pound  of  India  rubber  in  very  fine  shavings,  and  stir  until  cold. 
Then  heat  again,  slowly,  add  one  pound  of  linseed  oil  varnish,  heated, 
and  filter. 

6.  Another. — Dissolve  one  pound  of  gum  dammar,  and  a  half 
pound  of  India  rubber,  in  very  small  pieces,  in  one  pound  of  oil  of 
turpentine,  by  means  of  a  water  bath.  Add  one  pound  of  hot  oil 
varnish  and  filter. 

7.  India  rubber  in  small  pieces,  washed  and  dried,  are  fused  for 
three  hours  in  a  close  vessel,  on  a  gradually  heated  sand  bath.  On 
removing  from  the  sand  bath,  open  the  vessel  and  stir  for  ten  minutes, 
then  close  again,  and  repeat  the  fusion  on  the  following  day,  until 
small  globules  appear  on  the  surface.     Strain  through  a  wire  sieve. 

8.  Varnish  for  Waterproof  Goods. — Let  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
India  rubber,  in  small  pieces,  soften  in  a  half  pound  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, then  add  two  pounds  of  boiled  oil,  and  let  the  whole  boil  for  two 
hours  over  a  slow  coal  fire.  When  dissolved,  add  again  six  pounds  of 
boiled  linseed  oil  and  one  pound  of  litharge,  and  boil  until  an  even 
liquid  is  obtained.     It  is  applied  warm. 

9.  Gutta  Percha  Varnish. — Clean  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  Gutta 
Percha  in  wai-m  water  from  adhering  impurities,  di'y  well,  dissolve  in 
one  'pound  of  rectified  rosin  oil,  and  add  two  pounds  of  linseed  oil 
varnish,  boiling  hot.    Very  suitable  to  prevent  metals  from  oxidation. 

BLACK   VARNISH   FOR   HARNESS. 

Digest  shellac  twelve  parts,  white  turpentine  five  parts,  gum 
sandarach  two  parts,  lampblack  one  part,  with  spirits  of  turpentine 
four  parts,  alcohol  ninety-six  parts. 

BOILED   OIL   OR   LINSEED-OIL   VARNISH. 

Boil  linseed  oil  sixty  parts,  with  litharge  two  parts,  and  white 
vitriol  one  part,  each  finely  powdered,  until  all  water  is  evaporated. 
Then  set  by.  Or,  rub  up  borate  of  manganese  four  parts,  with  some 
of  the  oil,  then  add  linseed  oil  three  thousand  parts,  and  heat  to 
boiling. 

DAMMAR   VARNISH. 

Gum  dammar  ten  parts,  gum  sandarach  five  parts,  gum  mastie 
one  part,  digest  at  a  low  heat,  occasionally  shaking,  with  spirits  of 


72  VARNISHES. 

turpentine  tirenty  parts.      Finally,  add  more  spirits  of  turpentine 
to  give  the  consistence  of  syrup. 

COMMON    VARNISH. 

Digest  shellac  one  part,  with  alcohol  seven  or  eight  parts. 

WATEEPROOF   VARNISHES. 

Take  one  pound  of  flowers  of  sulphur  and  one  gallon  of  linseed  oil, 
and  boil  them  together  until  they  are  thoroughly  combined.  This 
forms  a  good  varniyh  for  waterproof  textile  fabrics.  Another  is  made 
with  four  pounds  oxyde  of  lead,  twopounds  of  lampblack,  five  ounces 
of  sulphur,  and  ten  pounds  of  India  rubber  dissolved  in  turpentine. 
These  substances,  in  such  proportions,  are  boiled  together  until  they 
are  thoroughly  combined.  Coloring  mattei's  maj'  be  mixed  with  them. 
Twilled  cotton  may  be  rendered  waterproof  by  the  application  of  the 
oil  sulphur  varnish.  It  should  be  applied  at  two  or  three  different 
times,  and  dried  after  each  operation. 

• 

VARNISHES   FOR  BALLOONS,   GAS  BAGS,  ETC. 

1.  India  rubber  in  shavings  one  ounce  ;  mineral  naphtha  two  lbs. ; 
digest  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  close  vessel  till  dissolved,  and  strain.  2. 
Digest  one  pound  of  Indian  rubber,  cut  small,  in  six  pounds  oil  of 
turpentine  for  7  days,  in  a  warm  place.  Put  the  mixture  in  a  water 
bath,  heat  until  thoroughly  mixed,  add  one  gallon  of  warm  boiled 
drying  oil,  mix,  and  strain  when  cold.  3.  Linseed  oil  one  gallon  ; 
dried  white  copperas  and  sugar  of  lead,  each  three  ounces;  litharge 
eight  ounces  ;  boil  with  constant  agitation  till  it  strings  well,  tlien 
oool  slowly  and  decant  the  clear.  If  too  thick,  thin  it  with  quicker 
drying  linseed  oil. 

GOLD   VARNISH. 

Digest  shellac  sixteen  parts,  gum  sandarach,  mastic,  of  each  three 
parts,  crocus  one  part,  gum  gamboge  two  parts,  all  bruised,  with 
alcohol  one  hundred  forty-four  parts.  Or,  digest  seed-lac,  sanda- 
rach, mastic,  of  each  eight  parts,  gamboge  two  parts,  dragon's  blood 
one  pai't,  white  turpentine  six  parts,  turmeric  four  parts,  bruised, 
with  alcohol  one  hundred  twenty  parts. 

WAINSCOT   VARNISH   FOR    H0D8E    PAINTING   AND    JAPANNING. 

Anime  ciglit  pounds  ;  clarified  linseed  oil  three  gallons  ;  litharge 
one-fourth  pound  ;  acetate  of  lead  one-lialf  pound  ;  sulphate  of  copper 
onc-fouitli  pcnuid. 

All  those  materials  must  be  carefully  but  thoroughly  builed  together 
until  the  mixture  becomes  quite  stringy,  and  then  five  and  a  half 
gallons  of  heated  turpentine  stirred  in.  It  can  be  easily  deepened  in 
color  by  the  addition  of  a  little  gold-size. 


LACKERS.  73 

L  A  C  K  E  Tl  S  . 

GOLD     LACKEK. 

Put  into  a  clean  four  gallon  tin,  one  pound  of  ground  turmeric, 
one  and  a  half  ounces  of  gamboge,  three  and  a  h.ilt  pounds  of  pow- 
dered gum  sandarach,  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  shellac,  and  two 
gallons  of  spirits  of  wine.  When  shaken,  dissolved,  and  strained, 
add  one  pint  of  turpentine  varnish,  well  mixed. 

KED     SPIRIT     LACKEK. 

Male  exactly  as  the  gold  lacker  with  these  ingredients  :  two  gal- 
lons of  spirits  of  wine,  one  pound  of  dragon's  blood,  three  pounds  of 
Spanish  annotto,  three  and  a  quarter  pounds  of  gum  sandarach,  and 
two  pints  of  turpentine. 

PALE     BRASS     LACKER. 

Two  gallons  of  spirits  of  wine,  one  pound  of  fine  pale  shellac, 
three  ounces  of  Cape  aloes,  cut  small  ;  one  ounce  of  gamboge,  cut 
small. 

LACKER   FOR   TIN. 

Any  good  lacker  laid  upon  tin  gives  it  the  appearance  of  copper 
or  brass.  It  is  made  by  coloring  lac-varnish  with  turmeric  to  impart 
the  color  of  brass  to  it,  and  with  annotto,  to  give  it  the  color  of  cop- 
per. If  a  tin  plate  is  dipped  into  molten  brass,  the  latter  metal  will 
adhere  to  it  in  a  coat. 

LACKER    VARNISn. 

A  good  lacker  is  made  by  coloring  lac-varnish  with  turmeric  and 
annotto.  Add  as  much  of  these  two  coloring  substances  to  the  varnish 
as  will  give  it  the  proper  color  ;  then  squeeze  the  varnish  through  a 
cotton  cloth,  when  it  forms  lacker. 

DEEP  GOLD  COLORED  LACKER. 

Seed-lac  three  ounces,  turmeric  one  ounce,  dragon's  blood  one- 
fourth  ounce,  alcohol  one  pint  ;  digest  for  a  week,  frequently  shaking, 
decant  and  filter. 

Ltickers  are  used  upon  polished  metals  and  wood  to  impart  the  ap- 
pearance of  gold.  If  yellow  is  required,  use  turmeric,  aloes,  saffron, 
or  gamboge  ;  for  red,  use  annotto,  or  dragon's  blood,  to  color.  Tur- 
meric, gamboge,  and  dragon's  blood,  generally  aflbrd  a  sufficient 
range  of  colors. 

LVCKERS    FOR    PICTURES,    METAL,    WOOD    OR    LEATHER. 

1.  Seed-lac  eight  ounces,  alcohol  one  quart  ;  digest  in  a  close  vessel 
in  a  warm  situation  for  three  or  four  days,  then  decant  and  strain. 
2.  Substitute  lac  bleached  by  chlorine  for  seed-lac.  Both  are  very 
tough,  hard,  and  durable  ;  the  last  almost  colorless. 

7 


74  MISCELLANEOUS    CEMENTS. 

MISCELLANEOUS     CEMENTS 


AKMEMAN    OR    DIAMOND    CEMENT. 

This  article,  so  much  esteemed  for  uniting  pieces  of  broken  glass, 
for  repairing  precious  stones,  and  for  cementing  them  to  watch  cases 
and  other  ornaments,  is  made  by  soaking  isinglass  in  water  until  it 
becomes  quite  soft,  and  then  mixing  it  with  spirit  in  which  a  little 
gum  mastic  and  animoniacum  have  been  dissolved. 

The  jewellers  of  Turkej',  who  are  mostly  Armenians,  have  a  singular 
method  of  ornamenting  watch  cases,  &c.,  with  diamonds  and  other 
precious  stones,  by  simply  glueing  or  cementing  them  on.  The  stone 
is  set  in  silver  or  gold,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  metal  made  flat,  or 
to  correspond  with  the  part  to  which  it  is  to  be  fixed  ;  it  is  then 
warmed  gently,  and  has  the  glue  applied,  which  is  so  very  stnng 
that  the  parts  so  cemented  never  separate  ;  this  glue,  which  will 
strongly  unite  bits  of  glass,  and  even  polished  steel,  and  may  be  ap- 
plied to  a  variety  of  useful  purposes,  is  thus  made  in  Turkey  : — Dis- 
solve five  or  six  bits  of  gum  mastic,  each  the  size  of  a  large  pea,  in  as 
much  spirits  of  wine  as  will  suffice  to  render  it  liquid  ;  and  in  another 
vessel,  dissolve  as  much  isinglass,  previous!}'  a  little  softened  in  water, 
(though  none  of  the  water  must  be  used,)  in  French  brandy  or  gooil 
rum,  as  will  make  a  two-ounce  vial  of  very  strong  glue,  adding  two 
small  bits  of  gum  albanum,  or  ammoniacum,  which  must  be  rubbed 
or  ground  till  they  are  dissolved.  Then  mix  the  whole  with  a  suffi- 
cient heat.  Keep  the  glue  in  a  vial  closely  stopped,  and  when  it  is 
to  be  used,  set  the  vial  in  boiling  water.  Some  persons  have  sold  a 
composition  under  the  name  of  Armenian  cement,  in  England  ;  but 
this  composition  is  badly  made  ;  it  is  much  too  thin,  and  the  quantity 
of  mastic  is  much  too  small. 

The  following  arc  good  proportions :  isinglass,  soaked  in  water  and 
dissolved  in  spirit,  two  ounces,  (tiiick) ;  dissolve  in  this  ten  grains  of 
very  pale  gum  ammoniac,  (in  tears,)  by  rubbing  them  together  ; 
then  add  six  large  tears  of  gum  mastic,  dissolved  in  the  least  jjossible 
quantity  of  rectified  spirit. 

Isinglass,  dissolved  in  proof  spirit,  as  above,  three  ounces  ;  bottoms 
of  mastic  varnish  (thick  but  clear)  one  and  a  half  ounces  ;  mix  well. 

When  carefully  made,  this  cement  resists  moisture,  and  dries  col- 
orless. As  usually  met  with,  it  is  not  only  of  very  bad  quality,  but 
sold  at  exorbitant  prices. 

CEMENTS    FOR   MENDING    EARTIIERN    AND    GLASS    WARE. 

1.  Heat  the  article  to  be  mended,  a  little  above  boiling  water  heat, 
then  apply  a  tiiin  coating  of  gum  shellac,  on  both  surfaces  of  the 
broken  vessel,  and  when  cold  it  will  be  as  strong  as  it  was  originally. 
2.  Dissolve  gum  shellac  in  alc((iiol,  apply  the  solution,  and  bind  the 
parts  firmly  together  until  the  cement  is  perfectly  dry. 


MISCELLANEOUS    CEMENTS.  75 


CEMENT   rOR   STONEWARE. 

Another  cement  in  -which  an  analogous  substance,  the  curd  or  ca- 
seum  of  milk  is  employed,  is  made  by  boiling  slices  of  skim-milk  cheese 
into  a  gluey  consistence  in  a  great  ([Uantity  of  water,  and  then  incor- 
porating it  with  quicklime  on  a  slab  with  a  muller,  or  in  a  marble 
mortar.  AVhen  this  compound  is  applied  warm  to  broken  edges  of 
stoneware,  it  unites  them  very  firmly  after  it  is  cold. 

IRON-RCST   CEMENT. 

The  iron-rust  cement  is  made  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  parts  of 
iron  borings,  pounded  and  sifted,  mixed  with  one  part  of  sal-ammo- 
niac, and  when  it  is  to  be  applied  moistened  with  as  much  water  as 
will  give  it  a  pasty  consistency.  Formerly  flowers  of  sulphur  were 
used,  and  much  more  sal-ammoniac  in  making  this  cement,  but  with 
decided  disadvantage,  as  the  union  is  effected  by  oxidizement,  conse- 
quent expansion  and  solidification  of  the  iron  powder,  and  any  hetero- 
geneous matter  obstructs  the  efi:ect.  The  best  proportion  of  sal-amino- 
niac  is,  I  believe,  one  per  cent  of  the  iron  borings.  Another  compo- 
sition of  the  same  kind  is  made  by  mixing  four  parts  of  fine  borings  or 
filings  of  iron,  two  parts  of  potter's  clay,  and  one  part  of  pounded 
potsherds,  and  making  them  into  a  paste  with  salt  and  water.  When 
this  cement  is  allowed  to  concrete  slowly  on  iron  joints,  it  becomes 
very  hard. 

FOR  M.UiING   ARCHITECTURAL   ORNAMENTS  IN   RELIEF. 

For  making  architectural  ornaments  in  relief,  a  moulding  compo- 
sition is  formed  of  chalk,  glue,  and  paper  paste.  Even  statues  have 
been  made  with  it,  the  paper  aiding  the  cohesion  of  the  mass. 


Mastics  of  a  resinous  or  bituminous  nature,  which  must  be  softened 
or  fused  by  heat,  are  the  following  : — 

varlet's    mastic. 

Mr.  S.  Varley's  consists  of  sixteen  parts  of  whiting  sifted  and  thor- 
oughly dried  by  a  red  heat,  adding  when  cold  a  melted  mixture  of 
sixteen  parts  of  black  rosin  and  one  of  bees'-wax,  and  stirring  well 
during  the  cooling. 

electrical  and  chemical  apparatus  cement. 

Electrical  and  chemical  apparatus  cement  consists  of  5  lbs.  of  rosin, 
1  of  bees'-wax,  1  of  red  ochre,  and  two  table-spoonsful  of  Paris  plas- 
ter, all  melted  together.  A  cheaper  one  for  cementing  voltaic  plates 
into  wooden  ti'oughs  is  made  with  6  pounds  of  rosin,  1  pound  of  red 
ochre,  4  of  a  pound  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  5  of  a  pound  of  linseed 
oil.  The  ochre  and  the  plaster  of  Paris  should  be  calcined  beforehand, 
and  added  to  the  other  ingredients  in  their  melted  state.  The  thinner 
the  stratum  of  cement  that  is  interposed,  the  stronger,  generally  speak- 
ing, is  the  junction. 


76  MISCELLANEOUS    CEMENTS. 


CEMENT    FOR    IRON    TUBES,    BOILERS,    ETC. 

Finely  powdereil  iron  sixty-six  parts,  sal-ammouiac  one  part,  water 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  form  into  paste. 

CEMENT  FOR  IVORY,  MOTHER  OF  PE-VRL,  ETC. 

Dissolve  one  part  of  isinglass  and  two  of  white  glue  in  thirty  of  wa- 
ter, strain  and  evaporate  to  six  parts.  Add  one-thirtieth  part  of 
gum  mastic,  dissolved  in  half  a  part  of  alcohol,  and  one  part  of 
white  zinc.     When  required  for  use,  warm  and  shake  up. 

CEMENT   FOR  HOLES    IN   CASTINGS. 

The  best  cement  for  this  purpose  is  made  by  mixing  one  part  of 
sulphur  in  powder,  two  parts  of  sal-ammoniac,  and  eighty  parts  of 
clean  powdered  iron  turnings.  Sufficient  water  must  be  added  to 
m;ikc  it  into  a  thick  paste,  which  should  be  pressed  into  the  holes  or 
seams  which  are  to  be  filled  up.  The  ingredients  composing  this  ce- 
ment should  be  kept  separate,  and  not  mixed  until  required  for  use. 
It  is  to  be  applied  cold,  and  the  casting  should  not  be  used  for  two  or 
three  days  afterwards. 

CEMENT  FOR  COPPERSMITHS  AND  ENGINEERS. 

Boiled  linseed  oil  and  red  lead  mixed  together  into  a  putty  are  often 
used  by  coppersmiths  and  engineers,  to  secure  joints.  The  washers  of 
leather  or  cloth  are  smeai-ed  with  this  mixture  in  a  pasty  state. 

A   CHEAP     CEMENT. 

Melted  brimstone,  either  alone,  or  mixed  with  rosin  and  brick  dust, 
forms  a  tolerably  good  and  very  cheap  cement. 

plumber's  cement. 

Plumber's  cement  consists  of  black  rosin  one  part,  brick  dust  two 
parts,  well  incorporated  by  a  melting  heat. 

CEMENT    FOR   BOTTLE-CORKS. 

The  bituminous  or  black  cement  for  bottle-corks  consists  of  pitch 
hardened  by  the  addition  of  I'osin  and  brick-dust. 

CHINA    CEMENT. 

Take  the  curd  of  milk,  dried  and  powdered,  ten  ounces  ;  quicklime 
one  ounce  ;  camphor  two  drachms.  Mix,  and  keep  in  closely  stopped 
bottles.  When  used,  a  portion  is  to  be  mixed  with  a  little  water  into 
a  paste,  to  be  applied  (juickly. 

CEMENT    FOR    LEATHER. 

A  mixture  of  India-rubber  and  shell-lac  varnish  makes  a  very  ad- 
hesive leatlier  cement.  .\  strong  solution  of  common  isinghiss,  with 
a  little  diluted  alcohol  added  to  it,  makes  au  excelleut  cement  for 
leather. 


MISCELLANEOUS    CEMENTS.  77 


MARBLE    CEMEXT. 

Take  plaster  of  paris,  and  soak  it  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum, 
then  bake  the  two  in  an  oven,  the  same  as  gypsum  is  baked  to  make 
it  jjlaster  of  jsaris  ;  after  which  they  are  ground  to  powder.  It  is 
then  used  as  wanted,  being  mixed  up  with  water  like  plaster  and  ap- 
plied. It  sets  into  a  very  hard  composition  capable  of  taking  a  very 
high  polish.  It  may  be  mixed  with  various  coloring  minerals  to  pro- 
duce a  cement  of  any  color  capable  of  imitating  marble. 

A   GOOD   CEJIEXT. 

Shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol,  or  in  a  solution  of  borax,  forms  a  pretty 
good  cement. 

CEMENT   FOa    MARBLE   WORKERS    AXD    COPPERSMITHS. 

White  of  egg  alone,  or  mixed  with  finely  sifted  quicklime,  will 
answer  for  uniting  objects  which  are  not  exposed  to  moisture.  The 
latter  combination  is  very  strong,  and  is  much  employed  for  joining 
pieces  of  spar  and  marble  ornaments.  A  similar  composition  is  used 
by  coppersmiths  to  secure  the  edges  and  rivets  of  boilers  ;  only  bul- 
lock's blood  is  the  albuminous  matter  used  instead  of  white  of  egg. 

TRANSPAREXT   CEMENT  FOR    GLASS. 

Dissolve  one  part  of  India-rubber  in  64  of  chloroform,  then  add 
gum  mastic  in  powder  16  to  24  parts,  and  digest  for  two  days  with 
frequent  shaking.     Apply  with  a  camels-hair  brush. 

CEMENT   TO   JIEND   IRON   POTS   AND   PANS. 

Take  two  parts  of  sulphur,  and  one  part,  by  weight,  of  fine  black 
lead  ;  put  the  sulphur  in  an  old  iron  pan,  holding  it  over  the  fire 
until  it  begins  to  melt,  then  add  the  lead  ;  stir  well  until  all  is  mixed 
and  melted  ;  then  pour  out  on  an  iron  plate,  or  smooth  stone.  When 
cool,  break  into  small  pieces.  A  sufiicient  quantity  of  this  compound 
being  placed  upon  the  crack  of  the  iron  pot  to  be  mended,  can  be 
soldered  by  a  hot  iron  in  the  same  way  a  tinsmith  solders  his  sheets. 
If  there  is  a  small  hole  in  the  pot,  di'ive  a  copper  rivet  in  it  and  then 
solder  over  it  with  this  cement. 

«  CEMENT  TO   RENDER  CISTERNS   AND   CASKS   WATER  TIGHT. 

An  excellent  cement  for  resisting  moisture  is  made  by  incorporating 
thoroughly  eight  parts  of  melted  glue,  of  the  consistence  used  by  car- 
penters, with  four  parts  of  linseed  oil,  boiled  into  varnish  with  lith- 
arge. This  cement  hardens  in  about  forty -eight  hours,  and  renders 
the  joints  of  wooden  cisterns  and  casks  air  and  water  tight.  A  com- 
pound of  glue  with  one-fourth  its  weight  of  Venice  turpentine,  made 
as  above,  serves  to  cement  glass,  metal  and  wood,  to  one  another 
Fresh-made  cheese  curd,  and  old  skim-milk  cheese,  boiled  in  water  to 
a  slimy  consistence,  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  potash 

7* 


78  MISCELLA^'EOUS    CEMEXTS. 

are  said  to  form  a  good  cement  for  glass  and  porcelain.  The  gluten  of 
wheat,  well  prepared,  is  also  a  good  cement.  AVhite  of  eggs,  with 
flour  and  water  well-mixed,  and  smeared  over  linen  cloth,  forms  a 
ready  lute  for  steam  joints  in  small  apparatus. 

CEMENT  FOR  REPAIRING  FRACTURED  BODIES  OF  ALL  KINDS. 

"White  lead  ground  upon  a  slab  with  linseed  oil  varnish,  and  kept 
out  of  contact  of  air,  ati'ords  a  cement  capable  of  repairing  fractured 
bodies  of  all  kinds.  It  requires  a  few  weeks  to  harden.  When  stone 
or  iron  are  to  be  cemented  together,  a  compound  of  equal  parts  of  sul- 
phur with  pitch  answers  very  well. 

CEMENTS  FOR  CRACKS  IN  WOOD. 

Make  a  paste  of  slacked  lime  one  part,  rye-meal  two  parts,  with  a 
sufScieut  quantity  of  linseed  oil.  Or,  dissolve  one  part  of  glue  in  six- 
teen parts  of  water,  and  when  almost  cool  stir  in  sawdust  and  pre- 
pared chalk  a  sufficient  quantity.  Or,  oil-varnisli  thickened  with  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  white-lead,  red-lead,  litharge,  and  chalk. 

CEMENT   FOR    JOINING    METALS   AND   WOOD. 

Melt  rosin  and  stir  in  calcined  plaster  until  reduced  to  a  paste, 
to  which  add  boiled  oil  a  sufficient  quantity,  to  bring  it  to  the  con- 
sistence of  honey  ;  apply  warm.  Or,  melt  rosin  180  parts,  and  stir 
in  burnt  uuiber  30,  calcined  plaster  15,  and  boiled  oil  8  parts. 

o.AS   fitters'  cejient. 

Mix  together,  resin  four  and  one-half  parts,  wax  one  part,  and 
Venetian  red  three  parts. 

impervious   CEMENT    FOR    APPARATUS,    CORKS,    ETC 

Zinc-white  rubbed  up  with  copal  varnish  to  fill  up  the  indentures; 
when  dry,  to  be  covered  with  the  same  mass,  somewhat  thinner,  and 
lastly  with  copal  varnish  alone. 

CEMENT   FOR   FASTENING    BRASS    TO    GLASS    VESSELS. 

Melt  rosin  l^O  parts,  wax  •¥),  and  add  burnt  ochre  30,  and  cal- 
cined plaster  2  parts.     Api)ly  warm. 

CEMENT   FOR   FASTENING    BLADES,    FILES,    ETC. 

Shellac  two  parts,  prepared  chalk  one,  powdered  and  mixed.  The 
opening  for  the  blade  is  filled  with  this  powder,  the  lower  end  of  the 
iron  heated  and  pressed  in. 

HYDRAULIC    CEMENT    PAINT. 

If  hydraulic  cement  be  mixed  with  oil,  it  forms  a  first-rate  anti- 
combustible  and  cxcelleut  water-proof  paint  for  roofs  of  buildings, 
outhouses,  walls,  &c. 


builders'  cements,  79 

BUILDEPvS'     CEMENTS. 


CEJIENT   FOR   TERRACES,   FLOORS,   ROOFS,   RESERVOIRS,   ETC. 

In  certain  localities  whei-e  a  limestone  impregnated  with  bitumen 
occurs,  it  is  dried,  ground,  sifted,  and  then  mixed  with  about  its  own 
weight  of  melted  pitch,  either  mineral,  vegetable,  or  that  of  cold  tar. 
When  this  mixture  is  getting  semifluid,  it  may  be  moulded  into  large 
slabs  or  tiles  in  wooden  frames  lined  with  sheet  iron,  previously 
smeared  over  with  common  lime  mortar,  in  order  to  prevent  adhesion 
to  the  moulds,  which,  being  in  moveable  pieces,  are  easily  dismounted 
so  as  to  turn  out  the  cake  of  artificial  bituminous  stone.  This  cement 
is  manufactured  upon  a  great  scale  in  many  places,  and  used  for 
making  Italian  terraces,  covering  the  floors  of  balconies,  flat  roofs, 
water  reservoirs,  water  conduits,  &c.  When  laid  down,  the  joints 
must  be  well  run  together  with  hot  irons.  The  floor  of  the  terrace 
should  be  previously  covered  with  a  layer  of  Paris  plaster  or  common 
mortar,  nearly  an  inch  thick,  with  a  regular  slope  of  one  inch  to  the 
yard.  Such  bituminous  cement  weighs  Hi  pounds  the  cubic  foot  ;  or 
a  foot  of  square  surface,  one  inch  thick,  weighs  1'2  pounds.  Some- 
times a  second  layer  of  these  slabs  or  tiles  is  applied  over  the  first, 
with  the  precaution  of  making  the  seams  or  joints  of  the  upper  corres- 
pond with  the  middle  of  the  under  ones.  Occasionally  a  bottom  bed, 
of  coarse  cloth  or  gray  paper,  is  applied.  The  larger  the  slabs  are 
made,  as  far  as  they  can  be  conveniently  tsansported  and  laid  down, 
so  much  the  better. 

MASTIC   CEMENT   FOR   COVERING   THE   FRONTS    OF   HOUSES. 

Fifty  parts,  by  measure,  of  clean  dry  sand,  fifty  of  limestone  (not 
burned)  reduced  to  grains  like  sand,  or  marble  dust,  and  10  parts  of 
red  lead,  mixed  with  as  much  boiled  linseed  oil,  as  will  make  it 
slightly  moist.  The  brick,  to  receive  it,  should  be  covered  with  three 
coats  of  boiled  oil,  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  suffered  to  dry,  before 
the  mastic  is  put  on.  It  is  laid  on  with  a  trowel  like  plaster,  but  it 
is  not  so  moist.  It  becomes  hard  as  stone  in  a  few  months.  Care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  use  too  much  oil. 

CEMENT   FOR    OUTSIDE   BRICK   WALLS. 

Cement  for  the  outside  of  brick  walls,  to  imitate  stone,  is  made  of 
clean  sand  90  parts,  litharge  5  parts,  plaster  of  Paris  5  parts,  moist- 
ened with  boiled  linseed  oil.  The  bricks  should  receive  two  or  three 
coats  of  oil  before  the  cement  is  applied. 

CEMENT   FOR   COATING   THE   FRONTS    OF   BUILDINGS. 

The  cement  of  dihl  for  coating  the  fronts  of  buildings  consists  of  lin- 
seed oil,  rendered  dry  by  boiling  with  litharge,  and  mixed  with  por- 
celain clay  in  fine  powder,  to  give  it  the  consistence  of  stiff  mortar. 


80  builders'  cements. 

Pipe-clay  would  answer  equally  well  if  well  dried,  and  any  color  might 
be  given  with  ground  bricks,  or  pottery.  A  little  oil  of  turpentine  to 
thin  this  cement  aids  its  cohesion  upon  stone,  brick  or  wood.  It  has 
been  .applied  to  sheets  of  wire  cloth,  and  in  this  state  laid  upon  ter- 
races, in  order  to  make  them  water  tight  ;  but  it  is  a  little  less  ex- 
pensive than  lead. 

CEMENT   FOR   STEPS   AND   BRICK   WALLS. 

A  cement  which  gradually  indurates  to  a  stony  consistence,  may  be 
made  by  mixing  twenty  parts  of  clean  river  saLd,  two  of  litharge,  and 
one  of  quicklime,  into  a  thin  putty  with  linseed  oil.  The  quicklime 
may  be  replaced  with  litharge.  When  this  cement  is  applied  to  mend 
broken  pieces  of  stone,  as  steps  of  stairs,  it  acquires  after  some  time  a 
stony  hardness.  A  similar  composition  has  been  applied  to  coat  over 
brick  walls,  under  the  name  of  mastic. 

A  HARD  CEMENT  FOR  SEAMS. 

An  excellent  cement  for  seams  in  the  roofs  of  houses,  or  for  any 
other  exposed  places,  is  made  with  white  lead,  dry  white  sand,  and 
as  much  oil  as  will  make  it  into  the  consistency  of  putty.  This  cement 
gets  as  hard  as  stone  in  a  few  weeks.  It  is  a  good  cement  for  filling 
up  cracks  in  exposed  parts  of  brick  buildings  ;  .and  for  pointing  up 
the  base  of  chimneys,  where  they  project  through  the  roofs  of  shingled 
houses. 

ANOTHER    GOOD    CEMENT. 

Dissolve  one  pound  of  alum  in  boiling  water,  and  while  it  is  boiling 
add  five  pounds  of  brown  soap,  cut  into  small  pieces  ;  boil  the  mixture 
about  fifteen  minutes.  It  then  becomes  sticky  like  shoemaker's  wax. 
Now  mix  it  witli  whiting  to  a  proper  consistency  for  filling  up  seams, 
&c.  It  becomes  partially  hard  after  a  few  months,  and  strongly  ad- 
heres to  wood.  The  wood  should  be  perfectly  dry.  To  make  it  ad- 
here it  must  be  well  pressed  down.  When  dry  it  is  impervious  to 
■water,  and  is  slightly  elastic. 

CEMENT   FOR   TILE-ROOFS, 

The  best  cement  for  closing  up  seams  in  tile-roofs  is  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  whiting  and  dry  sand  and  25  per  cent  of  litharge,  made 
into  tlie  consistcncyof  putty  with  linseed  oil.  It  is  not  liable  to  crack 
when  cold,  nor  melt,  like  coal-tar  and  asphalt,  .with  the  heat  of  the 
8un. 

COARSE   STUFF. 

Coarse  stuff,  or  lime  and  hair,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  pre- 
pared in  tiie  same  way  as  common  mortar,  witii  the  addition  of  hair 
procured  from  the  tanner,  which  nuist  be  well  mixed  with  tiic  mortar 
by  means  of  a  three-pronged  rake,  until  tlic  hair  is  equally  distribu- 
teil  throughout  the  composition.  Tiie  mortar  sliould  be  first  formed, 
and  wlien  the  lime  and  sand  have  been  thoroughly  mixed,  tlie  liair 
bIioiiM  lie  ailded  by  degrees,  and  the  wiiole  so  thoroughly  united,  that 
the  hair  shall  appear  to  be  equally  distributed  througiiout. 


builders'  cements.  81 


PARKER'S    CEJIENT. 


This  cement,  -wliich  is  perhaps  the  best  of  all  others  for  stucco,  as 
it  is  not  subject  to  crack  or  flake  off,  is  now  very  commonly  used, 
and  is  formed  by  burning  argillaceous  clay  in  the  same  manner  that 
lime  is  made.  It  is  then  reduced  to  powder.  The  cement,  as  used 
by  the  plasterer,  is  sometimes  employed  alone,  and  sometimes  it  is 
mixed  with  sharp  sand  ;  and  it  has  then  the  appearance,  and  almost 
the  strength,  of  stone.  As  it  is  impervious  to  water,  it  is  very 
proper  for  lining  tanks  and  cisterns. 

hajielein's  cejiext. 

This  cement  consists  of  earthy  and  other  substances  insoluble  in 
■water,  or  nearly  so  ;  and  these  may  be  either  those  which  are  in 
their  natural  state,  or  have  bean  manufactured,  such  as  earthen- 
ware and  china  ;  those  being  always  preferred  which  are  least 
soluble  in  water,  and  have  the  least  color.  When  these  are  pul- 
verized, some  oxide  of  lead  is  added,  such  as  litharge,  gray  oxide, 
or  minium,  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  ;  and  to  the  compound  is 
added  a  quantity  of  pulverized  glass  or  flint  stones,  the  whole 
being  thoroughly  mixed  and  made  into  a  proper  consistence  with 
some  vegetable  oil,  as  that  of  linseed.  This  makes  a  durable  stucco 
or  plaster,  that  is  impervious  to  wet,  and  has  the  appearance  of 
stone. 

The  proportion  of  the  several  ingredients  is  as  follows  :  —  to  every 
five  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  of  earth,  or  earths,  such  as  pit  sand, 
river  sand,  rock  sand,  pulverized  earthenware  or  porcelain,  add 
forty  pounds  of  litharge,  two  pounds  of  pulverized  glass  or  flint, 
one  pound  of  minium,  and  two  pounds  of  gray  oxide  of  lead.  Mix 
the  whole  together,  and  sift  it  through  sieves  of  difierent  degrees 
of  fineness,  according  to  the  purposes  to  which  the  cement  is  to  be 
applied. 

The  following  is  the  method  of  using  it :  —  To  every  thirty  pounds 
weight  of  the  cement  in  powder,  add  about  one  quart  of  oil,  either 
linseed,  walnut,  or  some  other  vegetable  oil,  and  mix  it  in  the  same 
manner  as  any  other  mortar,  pressing  it  gently  together,  either  by 
treading  on  it,  or  with  the  trowel  ;  it  has  then  the  appearance  of 
moistened  sand.  Care  must  also  be  taken  that  no  more  is  mixed  at 
one  time  than  is  required  for  use,  as  it  soon  hardens  into  a  solid 
mass.  Before  the  cement  is  applied,  the  face  of  the  wall  to  be  plas- 
tered should  be  brushed  over  with  oil,  particularly  if  it  be  applied 
to  brick,  or  any  other  substance  that  quickly  imbibes  the  oil  ;  if  to 
wood,  lead,  or  any  substance  of  a  similar  nature,  less  oil  may  be 
used. 

PLASTER    IN    IMITATION    OF    MARBLE — SCAGLIOLA. 

This  species  of  work  is  exquisitely  beautiful  when  done  with  taste 
and  judgment,  and  is  so  like  marble  to  the  touch,  as  well  as  appear- 
ance, that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the 
other.     We  shall  endeavor  to  explain  its  composition,  and  the  man- 


82  builders'  cements. 

ner  in  ■which  it  is  applied  ;  but  so  much  depemls  upon  the  workman's 
execution,  tliat  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  succeed  in  an  attempt 
to  work  with  it  without  some  practical  experience. 

Procure  some  of  the  purest  gypsum,  and  calcine  it  until  the  large 
masses  have  lost  the  brilliant,  sparkling  appearance  by  which  tliey 
are  characterized,  and  the  wliole  mass  appears  uniformly  opaque. 
This  calcined  gypsum  is  reduced  to  powder,  and  passed  through  a 
very  fine  sieve,  and  mixed  up,  as  it  is  wanted  for  use,  with  glue, 
isinglass,  or  some  other  material  of  the  same  kind.  This  solu- 
tion is  colored  witli  the  tint  required  for  the  scagliola  ;  but  when  a 
marble  of  various  colors  is  to  be  imitated,  the  several  colored  compo- 
sitions required  by  the  artist  must  be  placed  in  separate  vessels,  and 
they  are  then  mingled  together  in  nearly  the  same  manner  that  the 
painter  mixes  his  color  on  the  pallet.  Having  the  wall  or  column 
prepared  with  rough  plaster,  it  is  covered  with  the  composition,  and 
the  colors  intended  to  imitate  the  marble,  of  whatever  kind  it  may 
be,  are  applied  when  the  floating  is  going  on. 

It  now  only  remains  to  polish  the  work,  which,  as  soon  as  the  com- 
position is  hard  enough,  is  done  by  rubbing  it  witli  pumice-stone,  the 
woi'k  being  kept  wet  witli  water  applied  by  a  sponge.  It  is  then 
polished  with  Tripoli  and  charcoal,  with  a  piece  of  fine  linen,  and 
finished  with  a  piece  of  felt,  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  oil  and  Tripoli, 
and  afterwards  with  pure  oil. 

MALTHA,    OR   GREEK   MASTIC. 

This  is  made  by  mixing  lime  and  sand  in  the  manner  of  mortar, 
and  making  it  into  a  proper  consistency  Avith  milk  or  size,  instead  of 
water. 

FINE   STUFF. 

Tliis  is  made  by  slaking  lime  with  a  small  portion  of  water,  after 
•which  so  much  water  is  added  as  to  give  it  the  consistence  of  cream. 
It  is  tlien  allowed  to  settle  for  some  time,  and  the  superfluous  water 
is  poured  off,  and  the  sediment  is  suffered  to  remain  till  evaporation 
reduces  it  to  a  proper  tliickncss  for  use.  For  some  kinds  of  work,  it 
is  necessary  to  add  a  small  portion  of  hair. 

STUCCO    FOR    INSIDE    OF   WALLS. 

This  stucco  consists  of  fine  stuff  already  described,  and  a  portion 
of  fine  waslied  sand,  in  the  pi-oportion  of  one  of  sand  to  tlirec  of  fine 
stuff.  Those  parts  of  interior  Avails  are  finished  with  this  stucco 
which  are  intemled  to  be  painted.  In  using  this  material,  great  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  surface  I)e  pei'fectly  level,  an<l  to  secure  this 
it  must  be  well  Avorke<l  with  a  floating  tool  or  wooden  trowel.  This 
is  flone  by  sjirinkling  a  little  water  occasionally  on  the  stucco,  and 
I'ubhiiig  it  in  a  circular  direction  with  the  float,  till  the  surface  lias 
attained  a  high  gloss.  Tlie  durability  of  the  work  very  much  de- 
pends uiion  the  care  Avitli  Avliich  this  process  is  done  ;  for  if  it  be  not 
thoroughly  worked,  it  is  apt  to  crack. 


BUILDERS     CEMENT. 


HIGGINS'    STUCCO. 


83 


To  fifteen  pounds  of  the  best  stone  lime,  add  fourteen  pounds  of 
bone  ashes,  finely  powdered,  and  about  ninety-five  pounds  of  clean, 
■washed  sand,  quite  dry,  either  coarse  or  fine,  according  to  tlie 
nature  of  the  work  in  hand.  These  ingredients  must  be  intimately 
mixed,  and  kept  from  the  air  till  wanted.  When  required  for  use, 
it  must  be  mixed  up  into  a  proper  consistence  for  working  with 
lime  water,  and  used  as  speedily  as  possible. 

GAUGE    STUFF. 

This  is  chiefly  used  for  mouldings  and  cornices  which  are  run  or 
formed  with  a  wooden  mould.  It  consists  of  about  one-fifth  of  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  mixed  gradually  with  four-fifths  of  fine  stufi".  When 
the  work  is  required  to  set  very  expeditiously,  the  proportion  of 
plaster  of  Paris  is  increased.  It  is  often  necessary  that  the_  plaster 
to  be  used  should  have  the  property  of  setting  immediately  it  is  laid 
on,  and  in  all  such  cases  gauge  stutf  is  used,  and  consequently  it  is 
extensively  employed  for  cementing  ornaments  to  walls  or  ceilings, 
as  well  as  for  casting  the  ornaments  themselves. 

COMPOSITION. 

This  is  frequently  used ,  instead  of  plaster  of  Paris,  for  the  orna- 
mental parts  of  buildings,  as  it  is  more  durable,  and  becomes  in  time 
as  hard  as  stone  itself.  It  is  of  great  use  in  the  execution  of  the 
decorative  parts  of  architecture,  and  also  in  the  finishings  of  picture 
frames,  being  a  cheaper  method  than  carving  by  nearly  eighty  per 
cent. 

It  is  made  as  follows  :  —  Two  pounds  of  the  best  whitening,  one 
pound  of  glue,  and  half  a  pound  of  linseed  oil  are  heated  together, 
the  composition  being  continually  stirred  until  the  different  substan- 
ces are  thoroughly  incorporated.  Let  the  compound  cool,  and  then 
lay  it  on  a  stone  covei'ed  with  powdered  whitening,  and  heat  it  well 
until  it  becomes  of  a  tough  and  firm  consistence.  It  may  then  be 
put  by  for  use,  covered  with  wet  cloths  to  keep  it  fresli.  When 
wanted  for  use,  it  must  be  cut  into  pieces,  adapted  to  the  size  of  the 
mould,  into  which  it  is  forced  by  a  screw  press.  The  ornament, 
or  cornice,  is  fixed  to  the  frame  or  wall  with  glue  or  with  white 
lead. 

FOUNDATIOXS   OF   BUILDINGS. 

The  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil  upon  which  houses  are  to  be 
built  should  receive  far  more  attention  than  is  usually  bestowed  upon 
such  subjects.  A  soil  which  is  spongy  and  damp,  or  contains  much 
loose  organic  matter,  is  generally  unhealthy  ;  whereas  a  dry,  porus 
soil  afl:brds  a  healthy  site  for  buildings.  Wherever  we  find  a  soil  de- 
ficient in  gravel  or  sand,  or  where  gravel  and  sand-beds  are  underlaid 
with  clay,  there  should  be  a  thorough  sub-soil  drainage,  because  the 
clay  retains  the  water,  and  a  house  built  in  such  a  spot  would  other- 
wise always  be  damp  and  unhealthy. 


84  BUILDERS     CEMENTS. 

When  the  sub-soil  is  swampy,  which  is  the  case  with  many  portiong 
of  various  cities  that  have  been  filleil  in  with  what  is  called  iiuide 
earth,  fever  is  liable  to  prevail  in  houses  built  in  such  localities, 
owina  to  the  decay  of  organic  matter  underneath,  and  its  ascension 
in  the  form  of  gas  through  the  soil.  When  good  drainage  cannot  be 
effected  in  such  situations,  and  it  is  found  necessary  to  build  houses 
on  tliem,  they  should  all  have  solid  floors  of  concrete,  laid  from  the 
outside  of  the  foundations  and  covering  tlie  whole  area  over  which 
the  structure  is  erected.  These  tloors  tend  to  prevent  dampness  in 
houses,  consequently  they  are  more  comfortable  and  healthy  than 
they  otherwise  would  be.  Such  floors  also  tend  to  prevent  the  crack- 
ing of  the  walls,  owing  to  the  solidity  and  firmness  imparted  to  their 
foundations. 

CONCRETE   FLOORS. 

The  lower  floors  of  all  the  cellars  of  houses  should  be  composed  of  a 
bed  of  concrete  about  three  inches  thick.  This  would  tend  to  render 
them  dry,  and  more  healtiiy,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  rats  from 
burrowing  under  the  walls  from  the  outside,  and  coming  up  under 
the  floor— the  method  pursued  by  these  vermin  where  houses  are 
erected  on  a  sandy  soil.  This  concrete  should  be  made  of  washed 
gravel  and  hyilraulic  cement.  Common  mortar  mixed  with  pounded 
brick  and  washed  gravel,  makes  a  concrete  for  floors  nearly  as  good 
as  that  formed  with  hydraulic  cement.  Such  floors  l)ecome  very  hard, 
and  are  much  cheaper  than  those  of  brick  or  flagstones. 

FIUE-PROOF    COMrOSITION    TO    RESIST    FIRE    FOR    FIVE    HOURS. 

Dissolve,  in  cold  water,  as  much  pearlash  as  it  is  capable  of  holding 
in  solution,  and  wash  or  daub  with  it  all  tlie  boards,  wainscoting, 
timber,  &c.  Then  diluting  the  same  li(iuid  with  a  little  water,  add  to 
it  such  a  portion  of  fine  yellow  clay  as  will  make  the  mixture  tlie  same 
consistence  as  common  paint  ;  stir  in  a  small  quantity  of  paperhang- 
er's  flour  paste  to  combine  both  the  other  substances.  Give  three 
coats  of  this  mixture.  When  dry,  apply  the  following  mixture:— 
Tut  into  a  pot  C(iU!il  quantities  of  finely  pulverized  iron  filings,  brick 
dust,  and  ashes  :  pour  over  them  size  or  glue  water  ;  set  the  whole 
neai-'a  fire,  and  \\heu  warm  stir  them  well  together.  With  this  liquid 
composition,  or  size,  give  tlie  wood  one  coat  ;  and  on  its  getting  dry, 
give  it  a  second  coat.  It  resists  fire  for  five  hours,  and  prevents  the 
wood  from  ever  bursting  into  flames.  It  resists  the  ravages  of  fire, 
so  as  only  to  he  reduced  to  coal  or  embers,  without  spreading  the  con- 
flagration by  additional  flames  ;  by  which  five  clear  hours  are  gained 
inT-emoving  valuable  effects  to  a  place  of  safety,  as  well  as  rescuing 
the  lives  ot"all  the  family  from  danger  !  Furniture,  chairs,  tables, 
&c.,  particularly  staircases,  may  be  so  protected.  Twenty  pounds  of 
finely  sifted  yellow  clay,  a  pound  and  a  half  of  flour  for  making  the 
paste,  and  one  pound  of  pearlash,  arc  suflicient  to  prepare  a  square 
rood  of  deal-boards. 


MISCELLANEOUS    RECEIPTS.  85 

MISCELLANEOUS    RECEIPTS. 


TO   POLISH   WAINSCOT   AND    MAHOGANY. 

A  very  good  polish  for  wainscot  may  be  made  in  the  following 
manner  :  Take  as  much  beeswax  as  required,  and,  placing  it  in  a 
glazed  earthen  pan,  add  as  much  spirits  of  wine  as  will  cover  it,  and 
let  it  dissolve  without  heat.  Add  either  one  ingredient  as  is  required, 
to  reduce  it  to  the  consistence  of  butter.  When  this  mixtui'e  is  well 
rubbed  into  the  grain  of  the  Avood,  and  cleaned  off  with  clean  linen, 
it  gives  a  good  gloss  to  the  work. 

IMITATION   OF   MAHOGANY. 

Plane  the  surface  smooth,  and  rub  with  a  solution  of  nitrous  acid. 
Then  apply  with  a  soft  brush  one  ounce  of  dragon's  blood,  dissolved 
in  about  a  pint  of  alcohol,  and  with  a  third  of  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  mixed  and  filtered.  When  the  brilliancy  of  the  polish  dimin- 
ishes, it  may  be  restored  by  the  use  of  a  little  cold  drawn  linseed  oil. 

FURNITURE    VARNISH. 

White  wax  six  ounces,  oil  of  turpentine  one  pint ;  dissolve  by  a 
gentle  heat.      Used  to  polish  wood  by  friction. 

TO    MAKE    GLASS    PAPER. 

Take  any  quantity  of  broken  glass  (that  with  a  greenish  hue  ia 
the  best),  and  pound  it  in  an  iron  mortar.  Then  take  severel  sheets 
of  paper,  and  cover  them  evenly  with  a  thin  coat  of  glue,  and,  hold- 
ing them  to  the  fire,  or  placing  them  upon  a  hot  piece  of  wood  or 
plate  of  iron,  sift  the  pounded  glass  over  them.  Let  the  several 
sheets  remain  till  the  glue  is  set,  and  shake  off"  the  superfluous  pow- 
der, which  will  do  again.  Then  hang  up  the  papers  to  dry  and 
hai'den.  Paper  made  in  this  manner  is  much  superior  to  that  gene- 
rally purchased  at  the  shops,  which  chiefly  consists  of  fine  sand.  To 
obtain  different  degrees  of  fineness,  sieves  of  different  degrees  of  fine- 
ness must  be  used.     Use  thick  paper. 

TO    MAKE    STONE    PAPEH. 

As,  in  cleaning  wood-work,  particularly  deal  and  other  soft 
woods,  one  process  is  sometimes  found  to  answer  better  than  another, 
we  may  describe  the  manner  of  manufacturing  a  stone  paper,  which, 
in  some  cases,  will  be  preferred  to  sand  paper,  as  it  produces  a  good 
face,  and  is  less  liable  to  scratch  the  work.  Having  prepared  the 
paper  as  already  described,  take  any  quantity  of  powdered  pumice- 
stone,  and  sift  it  over  the  paper  through  a  sieve  of  moderate  fineness. 
When  the  surface  has  hardened,  repeat  the  pi-ocess  till  a  tolerably 
thick  coat  has  been  formed  upon  the  paper,  which,  when  dry,  will 
be  fit  for  use. 

8 


86  MISCKLLANEOirS    KECEIPTS. 


WHITEWASH. 

The  best  method  of  making  a  -whitewash  for  outside  exposure  is  to 
slack  half  a  bushel  of  lime  iu  a  barrel,  add  one  pound  of  common 
salt,  half  a  pound  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  a  gallon  of  sweet  milk. 

PAIST   FOR   COATING   WIRE   WORK. 

Boil  good  linseed  oil  with  as  much  litharge  as  will  make  it  of  the 
consistency  to  be  laid  on  witli  the  brush  ;  add  lampblack  at  the  rate 
of  one  pai't  to  every  ten,  by  weight  of  the  litharge  ;  boil  tliree  hours 
over  a  gentle  fire.  The  first  coat  should  be  thinner  than  the  follow- 
ing coats. 

TO    BLEACH   SPONGE. 

Soak  it  well  in  dilute  muriatic  acid  for  twelve  hours.  "Wash  well 
with  water,  to  remove  the  lime,  then  immerse  it  in  a  solution  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda,  to  which  dilute  muriatic  acid  has  been  added  a  mo- 
ment before.  After  it  is  bleached  sufficiently  remove  it,  wash  again, 
and  dry  it.     It  may  thus  be  bleached  almost  snow  white. 

LAC   VARNISH    FOR    VINES. 

Grape  vines  may  be  pruned  at  any  period  without  danger  from 
loss  of  bleeding,  by  simply  covering  the  cut  parts  with  varnish  made 
by  dissolving  stick-lac  in  alcohol.  The  lac  varnish  scon  dries,  and 
forms  an  impenetrable  coat  to  rain  ;  it  may  also  be  applied  with  ad- 
vantage in  coating  the  wounds  of  young  trees. 

RAZOR    PASTE. 

1.  Levigated  oxide  of  tin  (prepared  putty  powder)  1  oz.  ;  pow- 
dered oxalic  acid  1-4  oz.  ;  powdered  gum  20  grs.  ;  make  it  into  a 
stiff  paste  with  water,  and  evenly  and  thinly  spread  it  over  the  strop. 
With  vei-y  little  friction,  this  paste  gives  a  fine  edge  to  the  razor,  and 
its  efficiency  is  still  further  increased  by  moistening  it. 

2.  Emery  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder  2  parts  ;  spermaceti 
ointment  1  i)art  ;  mix  together,  and  rub  it  over  the  strop. 

3.  Jewellers'  rouge,  blucklcad,  and  suet,  equal  parts  ;  mix. 

LEATHER    VARNISH, 

Durable  leather  varnish  is  composed  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  in  which 
a  drier,  such  as  litharge,  has  been  boiled.  It  is  colored  with  lamp- 
black. This  varnish  is  used  for  making  enamelled  leather.  Common 
leather  varnish,  which  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  blacking,  is  made 
of  thin  lac-varnish  colored  with  ivory  black. 

TO    KEEP   TIRES   TIGHT   ON    WHEELS. 

Before  putting  on  the  tires  fill  the  felloes  with  linseed  oil,  which  ia 
done  by  lieating  the  oil  in  a  trough  to  a  boiling  heat,  and  keejting 
the  wiieel,  with  a  stick  through  the  hub,  in  the  oil,  f»ir  an  hour  Tlie 
wheel  is  turned  round  until  every  felloe  is  kept  in  the  oil  one  hour. 


MISCELLANEOUS    RECEIPTS.  87 


CUTTIXG   GLASS. 

To  cut  bottles,  shades,  or  other  ghiss  vessels  neatly,  heat  a  rofl  of 
iron  to  redness,  and  having  filled  your  vessel  the  exact  height  you 
wish  it  to  he  cut,  with  oil  of  any  kind,  you  proceed  very  gradually  to 
dip  the  red  hot  iron  into  the  oil,  which,  heating  all  along  the  surface, 
su<ldenly  the  glass  chips  and  cracks  right  round,  when  you  can  lift 
off  the  upper  portion  clean  by  the  surface  of  the  oil. 

PREPAKED    LIQUID    GLUE. 

Take  of  best  white  glue  16  ounces  ;  white  lead,  dry,  4  ounces  ; 
rain  water  2  pints  ;  alcohol  4  ounces.  With  constant  stirring  dis- 
solve the  glue  and  leail  in  the  water  by  means  of  a  water-bath.  Add 
the  alcohol,  and  continue  the  heat  for  a  few  minutes.  Lastly  pour 
into  bottles  while  it  is  still  hot, 

LIQUID    GLUES. 

Dissolve  33  parts  of  best  (Buffalo)  glue  on  the  steam  bath  in  a 
porcelain  vessel,  in  36  parts  of  water.  Then  atld  gradually,  stirring 
constantly,  3  parts  of  aqua  fortis,  or  as  much  as  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  glue  from  hardening  when  cool.  Or,  dissolve  one  part  of 
powdered  alum  in  120  of  water,  add  120  parts  of  glue,  10  of  acetic 
acid  and  40  of  alcohol,  and  digest. 

JIAEINE   GLUE. 

Dissolve  4  parts  of  India  rubber  in  34  parts  of  coal  tar  naphtha — 
aiding  the  solution  with  heat  and  agitation,  add  to  it  64  jiarts  of 
powdered  shellac,  which  must  be  heated  in  the  mixture,  till  the 
whole  is  dissolved.  While  the  mixture  is  hot  it  is  jDOured  upon  metal 
plates  in  sheets  like  leather.  When  required  for  use,  it  is  heated  in 
a  pot,  till  soft,  and  then  applied  with  a  brush  to  the  surfaces  to  be 
joined.  Two  pieces  of  wood  joined  with  this  glue  can  scarcely  be 
sundered. 

AN  EXCELLENT  PASTE  FOP.,  ENVELOPES. 

Mix  in  equal  quantities  gum-arabic  (substitute  dextrine)  and 
water  in  a  phial,  place  it  near  a  stove,  or  on  a  furnace  register,  and 
stir  or  shake  it  well,  until  it  dissolves.  Add  a  little  alcohol  to  pre- 
vent its  souring. 

DEXTRIN-E,    OR   BRITISH   GUM. 

Dry  potato-starch  heated  from  300°  to  600°  until  it  becomes  brown, 
soluble  in  cold  water,  and  ceases  to  turn  blue  with  iodine.  Used  by 
calico  printers  and  others,  instead  of  gum  arable. 

GUM  MUCILAGE. 

A  little  oil  of  cloves  poured  into  a  bottle  containing  gum  mucilage 
prevents  the  latter  from  becoming  sour  and  putrid  ;  this  essential  oil 
possesses  great  antiseptic  powers. 


88  MISCELLANEOUS    RECEIPTS. 


FLOUR    PASTE. 

Too  numerous  to  mention  are  the  little  conveniences  of  having  a 
little  flour  paste  always  at  hand,  as  those  made  of  any  of  the  gums 
impart  a  glaze  to  printed  matter,  and  make  it  rather  difficult  to  read. 
Dissolve  a  tablespoonful  of  alum  in  a  quart  of  warm  water,  and  when 
cold,  stir  in  as  much  flour  as  will  give  it  the  cousistencj'  of  tliick 
cream,  being  particular  to  beat  up  all  the  lumps,  then  stir  in  as 
much  powdered  resin  as  will  stand  on  a  dime,  then  throw  in  half  a 
dozen  cloves,  merely  to  give  a  pleasant  odor.  Next,  liave  a  vessel  on 
the  fire  which  has  a  teacupful  or  moi-e  of  boiling  water,  pour  the 
flour  mixture  on  the  boiling  water,  stir  it  well  all  the  time  ;  in  a  very 
few  minutes  it  will  be  of  the  consistence  of  mush  ;  pour  it  out  in  an 
earthen  or  china  vessel  ;  letj  it  cool  ;  lay  a  cover  on  it,  and  put  it 
in  a  cool  place.  It  will  keep  for  months.  When  needed  for  use,  take 
out  a  portion  and  soften  it  with  warm  water.  Keep  it  covered  an 
inch  or  two  in  water  to  prevent  the  surface  from  drying  up. 

SEALING-WAX   FOR   FRVIT-CANS. 

Beeswax,  ^  oz.  ;  English  Vermillion,  \h  ozs.  ;  gum  shellac,  2-|  ozs.  ; 
rosin,  8  ozs.  Take  some  cheap  iron  vessel  that  you  can  always  keep 
for  the  purpose,  and  put  in  the  rosin  and  melt  it,  and  stir  in  the  ver- 
million.  Then  add  the  shellac,  slowly,  and  stir  that  in,  and  afterward 
tlie  beeswax.  When  wanted  for  use  at  any  after  time,  set  it  upon  a 
Blow  fire  and  melt  it  so  you  can  dip  bottle-nozzles  in.  For  any  imr- 
posc,  such  as  an  application  to  trees,  wliere  3'ou  want  it  touglicr  tlian 
the  above  preparation  will  make  it,  add  a  little  more  beeswax,  and 
leave  out  the  vermillion. 

If  the  vermillion  is  left  out  in  the  above,  the  wax  will  be  all  the 
better  for  it,  as  it  is  merely  used  for  coloring  purposes. 

FUSIBLE    METAL. 

1.  Bismuth  8  parts  ;  lead  5  parts  ;  tin  3  parts  ;  melt  together, 
Melts  below  212  degrees  Falir.  2.  Bismuth  2  parts  ;  lead  T)  parts  ; 
tin  3  parts.  Melts  in  boiling  water.  3.  Lead  3  parts;  tin  2  parts; 
bismutli  .'j  parts  ;  mix.     Melts  at  197  dog.  Fahr. 

Remarks.  Tlic  above  are  used  to  make  toy-spoons,  to  surprise 
chiklren  by  their  melting  in  hot  liquors  ;  and  to  form  pencils  for 
writing  on  asses'  skin,  or  paper  prepared  by  rubbing  burnt  harts- 
horn into  it. 

METALLIC   CEMENT. 

M.  fJrpshiem  states  tliat  an  alloy  of  copjier  and  mcrciiry,  prepared 
as  follows,  is  capable  of  attacliing  itself  firmly  to  tlie  surfaces  of 
metal,  glass,  and  porcelain.  From  twenty  to  thirty  parts  of  finely 
divided  copper,  obtaincl  by  the  reduction  of  oxide  of  copper  with 
hydrogen,  or  by  precipitation  fi-om  solution  of  its  sulphate  with 
zinc,  are  made  into  a  paste  with  oil  of  vitrol  and  seventy  parts  of 
mercury  added,  the  whole  being  well  triturated.  When  the  amal- 
gamation is  complete,  the  acid  is  removed  by  washing  with  boiling 


MISCELLANEOUS    RECEIPTS.  89 

water,  and  the  compound  allowed  to  cool.  In  ten  or  twelve  hours, 
it  becomes  sufficiently  hard  to  receive  a  brilliant  polish,  and  to 
scratch  the  surface  of  tin  or  gold.  By  heat  it  assumes  the  consis- 
tence of  wax  ;  and,  as  it  does  not  contract  on  cooling,  M.  Greshiem 
recommends  its  use  by  dentists  for  stopping  teeth. 

AKTIFICIAL    GOLD. 

This  is  a  new  metallic  alloy  which  is  now  very  extensively  used  in 
France  as  a  substitute  for  gold.  Pure  copper  100  parts,  zinc,  or 
preferably  tin  17  parts,  magnesia  6  parts,  sal  ammoniac  3-6  parts, 
quick  lime  1-8  parts,  tartar  of  commerce  9  parts,  are  mixed  as  fol- 
lows :  The  copper  is  first  melted,  then  the  magnesia,  sal  ammoniac, 
lime,  and  tartar,  are  then  added,  separately  and  by  degrees,  in  the 
form  of  powder  ;  the  whole  is  now  briskly  stirred  for  about  half  an 
hour,  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly  ;  and  then  the  zinc  is  added  in  small 
grains  by  throwing  it  on  the  surface  and  stirring  till  it  is  entirely 
fused  ;  the  crucible  is  then  covered  and  the  fusion  maintained  for 
about  35  minutes.  The  surface  is  then  skimmed  and  the  alloy  is 
ready  for  castnig. 

It  has  a  fine  grain,  is  malleable  and  takes  a  splendid  polish.  It 
does  not  corrode  readily,  and  for  many  purposes  is  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute for  gold.  When  tarnished,  its  brilliancy  can  be  restored  by 
a  little  acidulated  water.  If  tin  be  employed  instead  of  zinc  the  alloy 
will  be  more  brilliant.  It  is  very  much  used  in  France,  and  must 
ultimately  attain  equal  popularity  here. 

OK-MOLU. 

The  or-molu  of  the  brass  founder,  popularly  known  as  an  imitation 
of  red  gold,  is  extensively  used  by  the  French  workmen  in  metals. 
It  is  generally  found  in  combination  with  grate  and  stove  work.  It 
is  composed  of  a  greater  portion  of  copper  and  less  zinc  than  ordi- 
nary brass,  is  cleaned  readily  by  means  of  acid,  and  is  burnished  with 
facility.  To  give  this  material  the  rich  appearance,  it  is  not  unfre- 
quently  brightened  up  after  "  dipping  "  (that  is  cleaning  in  acid)  by 
means  of  a  scratch  brush  (a  brush  made  of  fine  brass  wire),  the 
action  of  which  helps  to  produce  a  very  brilliant  gold-like  surface. 
It  is  protected  from  tarnish  by  the  application  of  lacker. 

BLANCHED    COPPER. 

Fuse  8  ounces  of  copper  and  ^  ounce  of  neutral  arsenical  salt,  with 
a  flux  made  of  calcined  borax,  charcoal  dust  and  powdered  glass. 

BROWNING    GUN   BARRELS. 

The  tincture  of  iodine  diluted  with  one-half  its  bulk  of  water,  is  a 
superior  liquid  for  browning  gun  barrels. 

SILVERING    POWDER    FOR   COATING    COPPER. 

Nitrate  of  silver  30  grains,  common  salt  30  grains ,  cream  of  tar- 
ar  3i  drachms  ;  mix,  moisten  with  water,  and  apply. 

8* 


90  MISCELLANEOUS    RECEIPTS. 


ALLOY    FOR    JOURNAL   BOXES, 


The  best  alloy  for  journal  boxes  is  composed  of  copper,  24  lbs.  ;  tin, 
24  lbs.  ;  and  antimony,  8  lbs.  Melt  the  copper  first,  then  add  the 
tin,  and  lastly  the  antimony.  It  should  be  first  run  into  ingots,  then 
melted  and  cast  in  the  form  required  for  the  boxes. 


ALLOY  FOR  BELLS  OF  CLOCKS. 


The  bells  of  the  pendulcs,  or  ornamental  clocks,  made  in  Paris,  are 
composed  of  copper  72.00,  tin  2G.56,  iron  1.44,  in  100  parts. 


AN    ALLOY    FOR    TOOLS. 


An  alloy  of  1000  parts  of  copper  and  14  of  tin  is  said  to  furnish 
tools,  -which  hardened  and  sharpened  in  the  manner  of  the  ancients, 
aflbrd  an  edge  nearly  e(|ual  to  that  of  steel. 


ALLOY    FOR   CYMBALS    AND    GONGS, 


An  alloy  for  cymbals  and  gongs  is  made  of  100  parts  of  copper  with 
about  2-5  of  tin.  To  give  this  compound  the  sonorous  property  in 
the  highest  degree,  the  piece  should  be  ignited  after  it  is  cast,  and 
then  plunged  immediately  into  cold  water. 


SOLDER    FOR    STEEL    JOINTS. 

Silver  10  pennyweights,  copper  1  pennyweight,  brass  2  penny- 
weights.    Melt  under  a  coat  of  charcoal  dust. 

SOFT    GOLD   SOLDER. 

Is  composed  of  four  parts  gold,  one  of  silver,  and  one  of  copper. 
It  can  be  made  softer  by  adding  brass,  but  the  solder  becomes  more 
liable  to  oxidize. 

FILES. 

Allow  dull  files  to  lay  in  diluted  sulphuric  acid  until  they  are  bit 
deep  enough. 

TO    PREVENT   RUSTING. 

Boiled  linseed  oil  will  keep  polished  tools  fi-om  rusting  if  it  is 
allowed  to  dry  on  them.  Common  sperm  oil  will  ])revent  them  from 
rusting  for  a  sliort  period.  A  coat  of  copal  varnish  is  frequently 
applied  to  polished  tools  exposed  to  the  wcatlier. 

ANTI-ATTRITION,    AND    AXLE-GREASE, 

One  part  of  fine  black  lead,  ground  perfectly  smooth,  with  four 
parts  of  lard. 

TO    GALVANIZE, 

Take  a  solution  of  nitro-muriate  of  gold  (gold  dissolved  in  a  mix- 
ture of  aquafortis  an<l  muriatic  aciil)  and  add  to  a  gill  of  it  a  pint 
of  etiier  or  aluoliol,  tlien  inuiiersc  your  copper  cliain  in  it  for  about 
15  minutes,  when  it  will  lie  coated  with  a  film  of  gold.  Tlie  copper 
must  Ije  perfectly  cleau  and  free  from  o.xyd,  grease,  or  dirt,  or  it  will 
Dot  take  ou  the  gold. 


BRASS,    BRONZE,    BELL    AND    BRITANNIA   METAL.  91 

RAPwE    AND    VALUABLE    COMPOSITIONS. 

Receipts  for  the  use  of  Mechanists,  Iron  and  Brass  Founders, 
Tinmen,  Coppersmiths,  Turners,  Dentists,  Finishers  oj  Brass, 
Britannia,  and  German  Silver,  and  Jor  other  useful  and  im- 
portant purposes  in  the  Practical  Arts. 

The  larger  number  of  the  following  Receipts  are  the  result  of 
inquiries  and  experiments  by  a  practical  operative.  Most  of  those 
which  relate  to  the  mixing  of  metals  and  to  the  finishing  ol  manufac- 
tured articles,  have  been  thoroughly  tested  by  him,  and  will  be  found 
to  produce  the  results  desired  and  expected.  The  others  have  beeo 
collected  from  eminent  scientific  works. 

No.  1.  Yellow  Brass, /or  Turmrao-. — (Common article. J— Copper, 
20  lbs.;  Zinc,  10  lbs.;  Lead  from  1  to  5  ozs. 

Put  in  the  Lead  last  before  pouring  off. 

JMo.  2.  Red  Brass, /or  Turning.  —  Copper,  24  lbs.5  Zinc,  5  lbs.; 
Lead,  8  ozs. 

Put  in  the  Lead  last  before  pouring  off. 

No.  3.  Red  Brass,  free,  for  Turning.  —  Copper,  160  lbs.;  Zinc,  60 
lbs.;  Lead,  10  lbs.;  Antimony,  44  ozs. 

No.  4.  Another  Brass,  for  Twning.  —  Copper,  32  lbs. ;  Zinc,  10 
lbs.;  Lead,  1  lb. 

No.  3.  Best  Red  Brass,  for  Fine  Castings.  —  Copper,  24  lbs.  j 
Zinc,  5  lbs.;  Bismuth,  1  oz. 

Put  in  the  Bismuth  last  before  pouring  off. 

No.  6.    Bronze  Metal.  — Copper,  7  lbs.;  Zinc,  3  lbs.;  Tin,  2  lbs. 

No.  7.    Bronze  Metal.  — Copper,  1  lb.;  Zinc,  12  lbs.;  Tin,  8  lbs. 

No.  8.  Bell  3Ietal, /or  large  Bells.  — Copper,  100  lbs.;  Tin,  from 
20  to  25  lbs. 

No.  9.     Bell  Metal, /or  small  Bells. —  Copper,  3  lbs.;  Tin,  1  lb. 

No.  10.  Cock  Metal.— Copper,  20  lbs.;  Lead,  8  lbs.;  Litharge,  1  oz.; 
Antimony,  3  ozs. 

No.  11.  Hardening  for  Britannia. —  (To  be  mixed  separately 
from  the  other  ingredients  ) —  Copper,  2  lbs.;  Tin,  1  lb. 

No.  12.  Good  Britannia  Metal. — Tin,  150  lbs.;  Copper,  3  lbs.; 
Antimony,  10  lbs. 

No.  13.  Britannia  Metal,  2d  quality.— Tin,  140  lbs.;  Copper, 3  lbs.; 
Antimony,  9  lbs. 

No.  14.  Britannia  Metal,  for  Casting.  — Tin,  210  lbs.;  Copper, 
4  lbs.;  Antimony,  12  lbs. 

No.  15.  Britannia  Metal, /or  Spinning. —  Tin,  100  lbs. ;  Britannia 
Hardening,  4  lbs.;  Antimony,  4  lbs. 

No.  IG.  Britannia  Metal, /or  22eofts<crs.  — Tin,  100  lbs.;  Harden- 
ing, 8  lbs.;  Antimony,  8  lbs. 

No.  17.  Bfst  Britannia, /or  Spouts.— Tin,  140  lbs.;  Copper,  3  lbs; 
Antimony,  6  lbs. 

No.  18.  Best  Britannia, /or  Spoons.  —  Tin,  100  lbs.;  Hardening, 
6  lbs.;  Antimony,  10  lbs. 


92     GERMAN    SILVER,    TOMBAC,    TUTANIA,    AND    SOLDERS. 

No.  19.  Best  Bhitannia,  for  Handles.  —  Tin,  140  lbs.;  Copper,  2 
lbs.;  Antimony,  5  lbs. 

No.  20.  Best  Rrit.\nnia, /or  Lamps,  Pillars,  and  Siwuts.  —  Tin, 
300  lbs.;  Copper,  4  lbs.;  Anlimonj',  15  lbs. 

]\o.21.    Casting  —  Tin,  100  lbs;  Hardening-,  5  lbs.;  Antimony,  6  lbs. 

No.  22.  Lining  Metal,  for  Boxes  of  Railroad  Cars.  -  Mix  Tin,  24 
lbs.;  Copper,  4  lbs.;  Antimony,  8  lbs. (for  a  hardening);  then  add 'J'in,  72  lbs. 

No.  23.  "Fine  Silver  Coloked  Metal.  —  Tin,  100  lbs.;  Antimony, 
8  lbs.;  Copper,  4  lbs.;  Bismuth,  1  lb. 

No.  24.  Of.kman  Silver,  First  Quality  for  Casting.  —  Copper,  50 
lbs.;  Zinc,  25  lbs.;  Nickel,  25  lbs. 

No.  25.  German  Sii.vf.r,  Second  Qualify  for  Casting. —  Copper,  50 
lbs.;  Zinc,  20  lbs.;  Nickel,  (best  pulverized,)  10  lbs. 

No.  2n.  German  Sii.VER,  for  Rdling. —  Copper,  60  lbs.;  Zinc,  20  lbs.: 
Nickel,  25  lbs. 

No.  27.  German  Silver,  ybr  Bells  and  other  Castings.  —  Copper, 
60  lbs.;  Zinc,  20  lbs. ;  Nickel,  20  lbs.;  Lead,  3  lbs.;  Iron,  (ihait  of  tin  plate 
being  best,)  2  lbs. 

No.  28  Imitation  of  Silver.  —  Tin,  3  ozs.;  Copper,  4  lbs. 

No.  29.  Pinchbeck.  —  Copper,  5  lbs.;  Zinc,  1  lb. 

No.  30.  Tombac.  —  Copper,  16  lbs.;  Tin,  1  lb.;  Zinc,  1  lb. 

No.  31.  Red  Tombac  — Copper,  10  lbs.;  Zinc,  1  lb. 

No  32.  Hard  White  Metal.  —  Sheet  Brass,  32  ozs.;  Lead,2ozs.j 
Tin,  2  ozs.;  Zinc,  1  oz. 

No.  .33.  iMetal  for  Taking  Impressions.  —  Lead,  3  lbs.;  Tin,  2 
lbs.;  Bismuth,  5  lbs. 

No.  .34.  Spanish  Totania. —  Iron  or  Steel,  8  ozs.;  Antimony,  IG  ozs.) 
Nitre  3  ozs. 

Melt  and  harden  8  ozs.  Tin  with  1  oz.  of  the  above  compound. 

No.  35.  Another  Tutania.  —  Antimony,  4  ozs.;  Arsenic,  I  oz.;  Tin, 
2  lbs. 

No.  5G.    Gun  Metal.— Bri.stol  Brass,  112  lbs.;  Zinc,  14  lbs.;  Tin,7  lbs. 
No.  37.     Rivet  Metal.  —  Copper,  32  ozs.;  Tin,  2  ozs.;  Zinc,  1  oz. 
No.  38.    Rivet  Metal, /or  JTose. —  T'm,  64  lbs.;  Copper,  1  lb. 
No.  .39.     Fusible  Alloy,  (which  melts  in  boiling  tvalcr.)  —  Bismuth, 
6  ozs.;  Tin,  3  ozs.;  Lead,  5  ozs. 

No. '10.  Fusible  Alloy, /o?-  Silvej-ing  Glass.  —  Tin,  6  ozs.;  Lead, 
10  ozs.;  Bismulh,  21  ozs  ;  Mercury,  a  small  quantity. 

No.  41.  Solder, /or  Gold.  —  Gold,  Gpwts.;  Silver,  1  pwt.;  Copper,  2 
pwts. 

No  42.     SoLDER,/or  Silrer.—  (For  thense  cfJewrller.s) — Fine  Silver, 
19  pwls  ;  Copper,  1  pwt.;  Sheet  Brass,  10  pwts. 
No.  43     White  SoLDKR,/or  Silver.  —  Silver,  I  oz  ;  Tin,  1  oz. 

No.  14.  White  Solder. /or  raised  Britannia  Ware. —  Tin,  100  lbs., 
Copper.  3  ozs.;  to  make  it  free,  add  Lead,  3  ozs. 

No  '15.     Best  Soft  Solvkr,  for  Cast  Britannia  Ware. — Tin,  8  lbs.; 

Lead,  5  lbs. 

No.  46.  Yellow  Solder,  for  Brass  or  Copper.  —  Copper,  1  lb.; 
Zinc,  1  II). 


GOLD,   SILVER  &  COPPER    SOLDERS,  &  DIPPING  ACIDS.      93 

No.  47.  Yellow  Solder,  ybr  Brass  or  Copper. —  (Slronger  than 
the  last.)  —  Copper,  32  lbs.;  Zinc,  29  lbs.;  Tin,  1  lb. 

No.  48.     SoLUER,  /or  Copper.  — Copper,  10  lbs.;  Zinc,  9  Ibsi 
No.  49.     Black  Solder. —  Copper,  2  lbs.;  Zinc,  3  lbs  ;  Tin,  2  ozb. 
No.  50.     Black  Solder. —  Sheet  Brass,  20  lbs.;  Tin,  6  lbs.;  Zinc,  1  lb. 
No.  51.     Soft  Solder.  —  Tin,  15  lbs.;  Lead,  15  lbs. 
No.  52.     Silver  Solder, /or  Plated  Metal.  —  Fine   Silver,    1  oz.j 
Brass,  10  pwts. 

No.  5.3.  Yellow  Dipping  Metal.  —  Copper,  32  Ibs.j  Zinc,  2  Ibs.j 
SoftSolder,2|  ozs. 

No.  54.  Quick  Bright  Dipping  Acm,  for  Brass  ivJiich  has  been 
crmoloud. —  Sulphuric  Acid,  1  gall.;  Nitric  Acid,  1  gall. 

No. 55.  Dipping  Acid.  —  Sulphuric  Acid,  12  lbs.;  Nitric  Acid,  1  pint j 
Nitre,  4  lbs.;  Snot,  2  handfuls  ;   Brimstone,  2  ozs. 

Piilveri.!e  the  Brimstone  and  soak  it  in  water  an  Iiour.    Add  the  Nitric  Acid  last. 

No.  56.    Good    Dipping   AciO,  for    Cast    Brass.  —  Sulphuric   Acid, 

1  qt.,  Nitre,  1  qt.;  Water,  1  qt. 

A  little  Muriatic  Acid  may  be  added  or  omitted. 

No.  57.  Dipping  Acid. —  Sulphuric  Acid,  4  galls.;  Nitric  Acid,  2  galls.; 
Saturated  solution  of  Sulphate  of  Iron  (Copperas),  1  pint;  Solution  of 
Sulphate  of  Copper,  1  qt. 

No. 58.    Ormold  Dipping  Acid,  for  Sheet  Brass.  —  Sulphuric  Acid, 

2  galls  ;  Nitric  Acid,  1  pt.;  Muriatic  Acid,  1  pt.;  Water,  1  pt.;  Nitre,  12  lbs. 
Put  in  the  Muriatic  Acid  last,  a  Utile  at  a  time  and  stir  the  mixture  witli  a  stick. 

No.  59.  Okmolu  Dipping  Acid,  yb?-  Sheet  or  Cast  Brass. —  Sulphu- 
ric Acid,  I  gall  ;  Sal  Ammoniac,  1  oz.;  Sulphur,  (in  flour.)  I  oz.;  Blue  Vitriol, 
1  oz.;  Saturated  Solution  of  Zinc  in  Nitric  Acid;  mi.xed  with  eui  equal 
qaantity  of  Sulphuric  Acid,  1  gall. 

No.  60.  To  Prepare  Brass  'Work  for  Ormolu  Dipping. —  If 
the  work  is  ciily,  boil  it  in  lye;  and  if  it  is  finished  work,  filed  or  turned,  dip 
it  in  old  acid,  and  it  is  then  ready  to  be  ormcloed ;  but  if  it  is  luifinished, 
and  free  from  oil,  pickle  it  in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  dip  in  pure  nitric  acid, 
and  then  in  the  old  acid,  after  which  it  will  be  ready  for  ormeloing. 

No.  61.  To  Repair  Old  Nitric  Acid  Ormolu  Dips. —  If  the 
work  after  dipping  appears  coarse  and  spotted,  add  vitriol  till  it  answers 
the  purpose.  If  the  vvork  after  dipping  appears  loo  smooth,  add  muriatic 
acid  and  nitre  till  it  gives  the  right  appearance. 

The  other  ormolu  dips  should  be  repaired  according  to  the  receipts, 
putting  in  tHie  proper  ingredients  to  strengthen  them.  Ihey  should  not  be 
allowed  to  settle,  but  should  be  stirred  often  while  using. 

No.  62.  Tinning  Acid,  for  Brass  or  Zinc.  —  Muriatic  Acid,  1  qt., 
Zinc,  G  ozs.    To  a  solution  of  this  add.  Water,  I  qt.;  Sal  Ammoniac,  2  ozs. 

No.  63.  Vinegar  Bronze,  /br  Brass.  —  Vinegar,  10  galls.;  Blue 
Vitriol,  3  lbs.;  Muriatic  Acid.  3  lbs,;  Corrosive  Sublimate,  4  grs.;  Sal  Am- 
monia, 2  lbs.;   Alum,  8  ozs. 

No.  64.  Directions  for  Making  Lacquer. —  Mix  the  ingredients 
and  let  the  vessel  containing  them  stand  in  the  sun,  or  in  a  place  slightly 
w.irmed  three  or  four  days,  shaking  it  frequently  till  the  gum  is  dissolved, 
after  which  let  it  settle  from  twenty-four  to  fort3'-eight  hours,  when  the 
clear  liquor  may  be  poured  off  for  use.  Pulverized  glass  is  sometimes 
used  in  making  Lacquer,  to  carry  down  the  impurities. 

No.  65.    Lacquer, /or  Dipped  Brass. —  Alcohol.proof  specific  gravity 


94  LACQUERS — VARIOUS    KINDS — BRONZES,    &C. 

not  less  than  95-lOOths,  2  galls.;  Seed  Lac,  1  Ih.;  Gum  Copal,  1  oz.;  English 
Saffron,  1  oz.;  Annolto,  1  oz. 

No.  66.  hAcq,vEK,  for  Bronzed  Brass.  —  To  one  pint  of  the  above 
Lacquer,  add.  Gamboge,  1  oz.;  and  after  mixing  it  add  an  equal  quantity  of 
tl*e  first  Lacquer. 

No.  67.  Deep  Gold  Colored  LiciiUEU.  —  Best  Alcohol,  40  ozs.; 
Spanish  Annntto,  8  grs.;  Turmeric,  2  drs.;  Shell  Lac,  ^  oz.;  Red  Sanders, 
12  grs.;  when  dissolved  add  Spirits  of  Turpentine,  30  drops.  i 

No.  68.    Gold  Coloked  hAC(ivr.R,  for  Brass  not  Dipped. —  Alcohol,' 
4  galls.;  Turmeric,  3  lbs.;  Gamboge,  3  ozs. j  Gum  Sandcracli.  7  lbs. ;  Shell 
Lac,  1^  lb.;  Turpentine  Varnish,  1  pint. 

No.  69.  Gold  Colored  L.\c(iUER,/o7'  Dipped  Brass. —  Alcohol,  36 
ozs.;  .Seed  Lac,  6  ozs.;  Amber,  2  ozs.;  Gum  Gutta,  2  ozs.;  Red  Sandal 
Wood,  24. grs  ;  iJragon's  Blood,  60  grs.;  Oriental  Saffron,  36  grs.;  Pulver- 
ized Glass,  4  ozs. 

No.  70.  Good  L.\cquer,  for  Brass.  —  Seed  Lac,  6  ozs.;  Amber  or 
Copal,  2  ozs.;  Best  Alcohol,  4  galls.;  Pulverized  Glass,  4  ozs. ;  Dragon's 
Blood,  40  grs.;  Extract  of  Red  Sandal  Wood  obtained  by  water,  30  grs. 

No.  71.  Lacquer, /or  Dipped  Brass.  —  Alcohol,  12  galls.;  Seed  Lac, 
9  lbs.;  Turmeric,  1  lb.  to  a  gallon  of  the  above  mixture;  Spanish  Saffron, 
4  ozs. 

The  Saffron  is  to  be  added  for  Bronze  work. 

Tio.  T2.  Good  Lacquer. —  Alcohol,  8  ozs.;  Gamboge,  1  oz.;  Shell 
Lac,  3  ozs. ;  Annotlo,  1  oz.;  solution  of  3  ozs.  of  Seed  Lac  in  1  ])int  of  Al- 
cohol;  when  dissolved  add  ij  oz.  Venice  Turpentine,!  oz.  Dragon's  Blood, 
will  make  it  dark  ;  keep  it  in  a  warm  place  four  or  live  days. 

No.  73.  Pale  Lac^quer,  for  Tin  Plate.  —  Best  Alcohol,  8  ozs. ;  Tur- 
meric, 4  drs.;  Hay  Safiron,  2  scs.;  Dragon  Blood, 4  scs.;  Red  Sanders.  1  sc; 
Shell  Lac,  1  oz.;  Gum  Sanderach,  2  drs.;  Gum  Mastic,  2  drs.;  Canada  Bal- 
sam, 2  drs.;  when  dissolved  add  Spirits  of  Turpentine,  80  drops. 

No.  7I-.  Red  Lacquer,  for  Brass. —  Alrohol,  8  galls.;  Dragon'a 
Blood,  4  lbs. ;  Spanish  Annolto,  12  lbs.,  Gum  Sandcracli,  13  lbs.;  Turpeu- 
line,  1  gall. 

No.  75.  Pale  Lacquer, /<?r  Brass. —  Alcohol,  2  galls.;  Cape  Aloes 
cut  small,  3  ozs.;  Pale  Shell  Lac,  1  lb.;  Gamboge,  i  oz. 

No.  76.  Best  Lacquer,  for  Brass. —  Alcohol,  4  galls.;  Shell  Lac, 
2  lbs.;  Amt)er  Gum,  1  lb.;  Copal,  20  ozs.;  Seed  Lac,  3  lbs.;  Saffron,  to 
color;  Pulverized  Glass,  3  ozs. 

No.  77.     Color  for  Lacquer. — Alcohol,  1  qf.;  Annolto,  4  ozs. 

No.  78.  Lacquer,  ybc  Pihsophical  Instrnmenls. —  Alcohol,  80  ozs.; 
Gum  Gutta,  3  ozs.;  Gum  Sandarac,  8  ozs.;  Gum  Elemi,  8  ozs.;  Dragon's 
Blood,  4  ozs  ;  Seed  Lac,  4  ozs.;  Terra  Merita,  3  ozs.;  Saffron,  8  grs.;  Pul. 
verizcd  Glass,  12  ozs. 

No.  79.  Brown  Bronze  Dip.— Iron  Scales,  1  lb.;  Arsenic,  1  02. 
Muriatic  Acid,  1  lb.;  Zinc,  (solid,)  I  oz. 

Let  the  Zinc  be  kept  in  only  while  it  in  in  ubc. 

No.  80  Gkeen  Bkon7.e  Dip.— Wine  Vinog.ar,  2  qts.;  VerditerGreen, 
2  ozs.;  Sal  Ammoniac,  1  oz  ;  Salt,  2  ozs. ;  Alum,  ^oz.;  French  15erric8, 
8  ozs.;  boil  the  ingredients  together, 

•No.  81.    Aquafortis    Bronze  Dip.— Nilric  Acid.  3  ozs.;   Mnriatio 
Aci<l,  1  qt.;  Sal  Aiiim<>iiiac,2ozs.;  Alum,  1  oz.;  Salt,  2  ozs.;  Water,  2  galls. 
Alii  the  Suit  after  builiug  the  other  ingredients,  and  u(C  it  hot. 


BRONZES,    SILVERING,    AND     VARNISHES.  95 

No.  82.  Olive  Hronze  Dip,  for  7?rnss.—  Nitric  Acid,  3  czs  ;  Muri 
atic  Acid,  2  ozs.;  add  Titanium  or  Palladium  ;  when  the  metal  is  dissolveo 
add  2  galls,  pure  soft  water  to  each  pint  of  the  solution. 

No.  83.  Bkown  Bronze  Paint, /or  Copper  Vessels.  —  Tincture  ol 
Steel,  4  ozs. ;  Spirits  of  Nitre,  4  ozs. ;  Essence  of  Uendi,  4  ozs. ;  Blue 
Vitriol,  1  oz.;  Water,  A  pint. 

Mix  in  a  bottle.  Apply  it  with  a  fine  brush,  the  ressel  being  lull  of  boiling  water 
Varnish  after  the  application  of  the  bronze. 

No.  84.  Bron/k,  for  all  kinds  of  Metal.  —  Muriate  of  Ammonia  'Sal 
Ammoni.ir),  4  drs.;  Oxalic  Acid,  I  dr.;  Vinegar,  1  pint. 

Dissolve  the  Oxalic  Acid  first.  Let  the  work  be  clean.  Tut  on  the  'bronze  with  a 
brush,  repeating;  the  operation  as  many  times  as  may  be  necessary. 

No.  85  Bronze  Paint,  for  Iron  or  Brass  — Chrome  Green,  2  Ihs.; 
Ivory  Black,  I  oz. ;  Chrome  Yellow,  1  oz.  3  Good  Japan,  1  gill ;  grind  all 
togelhcr  and  mi.x  with  Linseed  Oil. 

No.  86.  To  Bronze  Gun  Barrels.— Dilute  Nitric  Acid  v.ith  Water 
and  rul>  the  gun  barrels  with  it ;  lay  them  by  for  a  few  days,  then  rub  them 
with  Oil  and  polish  them  with  bees-wax. 

No.  87.  For  Tinning  Brass. —  Water,  2  pails  full}  Cream  of  Tar- 
tar, 1-2  lb.;  Salt,  1-2  pint. 

Shaved  or  Grained  Tin.  — Boil  the  work  in  the  mixture,  keeping  it  in  motion  during 
the  time  of  boiling. 

No.  88.  Silvering  by  Heat. —  Dissolve  1  oz.  of  Silver  in  Nitric 
Acid ;  add  a  small  quantity  of  Salt ;  then  wash  it  and  add  Sal  Ammoniac, 
or  6  ozs.  of  Salt  and  White  Vitriol ;  also  \  oz.  of  Corrosive  Sublimate,  rub 
them  together  till  they  form  a  paste,  rub  the  piece  which  is  to  be  Silvered 
with  the  paste,  heat  it  till  the  Silver  runs,  after  which  dip  it  in  a  weak  vitriol 
pickle  to  clean  it. 

No.  89.  Mixture  for  Silvering.  —  Dissolve  2  ozs.  of  Silver  with 
3  grains  of  Corrosive  Sublimate;  add  Tartaric  Acid,  4  lbs.;  Salt,  8  qts. 

No.  90.  Separate  Silver  from  Copper. —  Mix  Sulphuric  Acid, 
1  part;  Nitric  Acid,  1  part;  Water,  1  part;  boil  the  metal  in  the  niixture 
till  it  is  dissolved,  and  throw  in  a  little  Salt  to  cause  the  Silver  to  subside. 

No.  91.  Solvent  for  Gold. —  Mix  equal  quantities  of  Kitric  and 
Muriatic  Acids. 

No.  92.  Varnish,  ybr  Smooth  Moulding  Patterns.  —  Alcoho.,  1  gall.; 
Shell  Lac,  1  lb.;  Lamp  or  Ivory  Black,  sufficient  to  color  it. 

No  93.  Fine  Black  Varnish, /or  Coaches. —  Melt  in  an  Iron  pot, 
Amber,  32  ozs.;  Resin,  6  ozs.;  Asphaltum,  6  ozs.;  Drying  Linseed  Oil,  I  pt.j 
when  partly  cooled  add  Oil  of  Turpentine,  wormed,  1  pt. 

No.  94.  Chinese  White  Copper.  —  Copper,  40.4;  Nickel.  31.6; 
Zinc,  25.4;  and  Iron,  2.6  parts. 

No.  95.  Manheim  Gold.  —  Copper,  3;  Zinc,  1  part;  and  a  small 
quantity  of  Tin. 

No.  96.    Alloy    of    the    Standard    Measures    used     by    tub 
British  Government. —  Copper,  576  ;  Tin.  59  ;  and  Brass,  48  parts. 
No.  97.    Bath  Metal.  —  Brass,  32  ;  and  Zinc,  9  parts. 

No.  98.  Speculum  Metal. —  Copper,  6  ;  Tin, 2 ;  and  Arsenic,  I  pari 
Or,  Copper,  7  ;  Zinc,  3  ;  and  Tin,  4  parts. 

No.  99.     Hard  Solder.  —  Copper,  2;  Zinc,  I  part. 

No.  100.     Blanched  Copper.  —  Copper,8;  and  Arsenic,  ^  part. 

No.  101.  BitiTANNiA  Metal.  —  Brass,  4 ;  Tin,  4  parts ;  when  fused, 
add  Bismuth.  4  ;   and  Antimony,  4  parts. 

This  composition  is  added  at  discretion  to  melted  Tin. 


96  SOLDERS   AND   CEMENTS. 

No.  102.  Plumber's  Solder. —  Lead,  2;  Tin,  I  part. 

No.  103.  Tinman's  Solder.  —  Lead,  i ;  Tin,  1  part. 

No.  lOi.  Pewterer's  SoLDEii.  —  Tin,  2;  Lead,  1  part. 

No.  105.  Common  Pewter.  —  Tin, 4;  Lead,  1  part. 

No.  106.  Best  Pewter.  —  Tin,  IOO5  Antimony,  17  parts. 

No.  107.  A  Metal  that  Expands  in  Cooling.  —  Lead,  9  j  Anil- 
men)-,  2  ;  Bismuth,  1  pari. 

This  Jletal  is  very  useful  in  filling  Email  defects  in  Iron  castings,  &c. 

No.  108.  Queer's  Metal. — Tin,  9;  Antimony,  1}  Bismuth,  1 ; 
Lead,  1  part. 

No.  109.    Mock  Platinum.  —  Brass,  8;  Zinc,  5  parts. 

No.  110.  Silver  Coin  of  the  United  States.  —  Pure  Silver, 
9;  Alloy,  1  part;  the  alloy  of  silver  is  fine  copper. 

No.  111.  Gold  Coin  of  the  United  States.  —  Pure  Gold,  9  ; 
Alloy.  1  part ;  the  alloy  of  gold  is  ^  silver  and  |  copper,  (not  to  exceed  J^ 
silver). 

No.  112.  Silver  Coin  of  Great  Britain.  —  Pure  Silver,  11.1 5 
Copper,  9.9  parts. 

No.  113.  Gold  Coin  of  Great  Britain. —  Pure  Gold,  11 ;  Copper, 
1  part. 

Previons  to  1826  Silver  formed  part  of  the  alloy  of  Gold  coin  ;  hence  the  difitrent  color 
of  English  Gold  money. 

No.  114.  Ring  Gold.  —  Pure  Copper,  6^  pwts.;  Fine  Silver,  31  pwts.j 
Pure  Gold,  1  oz.  and  5  pwts. 

No.  115.  Mock  Gold.  —  Fuse  together  Copper,  16;  Platinum,7j 
Zinc,  1  part. 

When  Steel  is  a'loyed  with  1-500  part  of  Platinum,  or  with  1-JCO  part  of  Silver,  it  1( 
rendered  much  harder,  more  malleable,  and  better  adapted  for  every  kind  of  cutting 
Instrument. 

Note.  —  Tn  making  alloys,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  more  infusible  metals  melted 
fir.-t,  and  afterwards  add  the  otliers. 

No.  116.  Compo-^ition  Used  in  Welding  Cast  Steel. —  Borax, 
10;  Sal  .Ammoniac,  1  part ;  grind  or  pound  thorn  roughly  together  ;  then 
fuse  them  in  a  metal  pot  over  a  clear  fire,  taking  care  to  contiinip  the  heat 
until  all  spume  has  disappeared  from  the  surface.  \\'hen  ilic  liquid  appears 
clear,  ih<'  composition  is  ready  to  be  poured  out  to  cool  and  concrete  J 
afterwards  being  pround  to  a  fine  powder,  it  is  ready  for  use. 

To  use  tliis  roinpositinn,  the  Steel  to  be  welded  is  raised  to  a  heat  which  may  be 
expressed  by  " bright  yellow;"  it  is  then  dipped  among  the  welding  powder, and  again 
placed  in  the  fire  until  it  attains  the  same  degree  of  heat  03  before,  it  is  then  r,;ady  to  l>a 
placed  under  the  hammer. 

No.  117.  Cast  Ikon  Cement. — Clean  borings,  or  turnin^is,  of  Cast 
Iron.  16;  Sal  Ammoniac,  2 ;  Flour  of  Sulphur,  1  part;  mix  thorn  well  to- 
gether in  a  mortar  and  keep  them  dry.  W'lien  rcquircil  for  u>p,  take  of  ihe 
mixture,  1  ;  clean  borings,  20  parts;  mix  thoroughly,  and  add  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water. 

A  little  grindstone  dust  added  improves  the  cement. 

No.  118.  Booth's  Patent  Grease, /or  /JaiVicai/ j4t/m.  —  Water,  1 
pall.;  Clean  Tallow.  3  lbs.;  Palm  Oil,  6  lbs.;  Common  Soda,  ^  lb.  Or, 
Tallow,  8  lbs.;  Palm  Oil.  10. 

The  mixture  ti>  be  healed  to  about  210°  F.,  and  well  stirred  till  it  cools  down  to  about 
70",  wheu  it  is  ready  for  use. 

No.  119.  Cement,  for  Sleam-pipe  Joints,  S,'C.,  with  Faced  Flan<cfs. — 
While  Load,  mixed,  2;  lied  Lead,  dry,  1  part;  grind  or  otlicr%vise  mix  thorn 
to  a  coiisiBtcncc  of  lliin  putty,  apply  interposed  layers  with  one  or  two 
thickucsscB  of  canvas  or  (^auzu  wire,  as  the  necessity  of  tlie  case  may  be. 


ALLOYS    OF    COPPER,    ZINC,    AND    TIN. 


97 


No.  120.  Soft  Cement,  for  Steam-boilers,  Steam-pipes,  8fC. —  Red 
or  White  Lead,  in  oil,  4  ;  Iron  borings,  2  lo  3  parts. 

No.  121.  Hard  Ceme.nt.  —  Iron  Borings  and  Salt  Water,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  Sal  Ammoniac  with  Fresh  Water. 

No.  122.  Staini.vg  Wood  axd  Ivokt — FeWoic.— Dilute  Nitric  Acid 
will  produce  it  on  wood. 

Red.  — An  infusion  of  Brazil  Wood  in  stale  urine,  in  the  proportion  of  a 
pound  to  a  gallon  for  wood  ;  to  be  laid  on  when  boiling  hot.  and  should  be 
laid  over  with  alum  water  before  it  dries.  Or,  a  solution  of  Dragon's  Blood 
in  spirits  of  wine,  may  be  used. 

£/acA.  —Strong  solution  of  Nitric  Acid,  for  wood  or  ivory. 

Mahogany.  —  Brazil,  Madder,  and  Log^vood,  dissolved  in  water  and  put 
on  hot.  .    . 

Blue.  —  Ivorv  mav  be  stained  thus  :  Soak  it  in  a  solution  of  Verdigris  in 
Nitric  Acid,  which  will  turn  it  green  ;  then  dip  it  into  a  solution  of  Pearlash 
boiling  hot. 

Purple.  —  Soak  ivory  in  a  solution  of  Sal  Ammoniac  into  four  times  its 
weight  of  Nitrous  Acid. 

TABLE    OF   ALLOYS. 


Alloys  having  a  density  greater  than  the 
Mean  of  their  Constituents. 


Gold  and  zinc. 
Gold  and  tin. 
Gold  ami  bismuth. 
Gold  and  ainiraoiiy 
Gold  and  ccball. 
Silver  and  zinc. 
Silver  and  lead. 
Silver  and  tin. 
Silverand  bismuth. 


[Silver  &  antimony. 

I  Copper  and  zinc. 
Copper  and  iin.[um 
Copper  and  palladi- 
Copper  &  bismmh. 
Lead  and  aminionj- 

' Platinum  &  moUb- 

denura.       [muih. 

Palladium  and  bis- 


Alloys  having  a  density  less  than  the  Mean 
of  their  Constituents. 

Iron  and  bismuth. 
!lron  and  antimony. 
Iron  and  lead. 
Tin  and  lead. 
Tin  and  palladium. 
Tilt  and  antimony. 
Nickel  and  arsenic. 
Ziuc  and  antimony. 


Gold  and  silver. 
Gold  and  iron. 
Gold  and  lead. 
Gold  and  copper. 
Gold  and  iridium. 
Gold  and  nickel. 
Silver  a.nd  copper. 
Silver  and  lead. 


ALLOYS  OF  COPPER  AND  ZINC,  AND  OF  COPPER  AND  TIN. 


c  =  c 

Composition   by 
■Weight  per  cent 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Colonr. 

Ciiaracteristic  Properties,  &c. 

Copper 

8667 

Tile  red. 

24.6 

.Malleable. 

lUO  00      Zinc 

66^ 

Bluish  srey. 

15.2 

Brittle. 

83.02+16.93 

8415 

Yellowish  red. 

13.7 

Baih  metal. 

79.G-5+20..35 

8448 

do.          do. 

14.7 

Dutch  brass. 

74.55+25.4-2 

8397 

Pale  yellow. 

13.1 

Rolled  sheet  brass. 

66.1S+33.S2 

8299 

Full  vellow. 

12.5 

British  brass. 

49.47+50..53 

82:30 

do.      do. 

9.2 

German  brass. 

32.55+07.15 

e^} 

Deep  yellow. 

19.3 

Watchmakers'  brass. 

30  30+09.70 

7936 

Silver  white. 

2.2 

Ver\-  briule. 

24.50+75.50 

7449 

Ash  ^ey. 

3.1 

Brittle. 

19.65+S0.35 

7371 

do. 

1.9 

While  button  metal. 

Tin 

7291 

White. 

2.7 

64.29+15.71 

8561 

Reddish  yellow. 

16.1 

Gun  metal. 

81.10+1S.90 

8459 

Yellowish  red. 

17.7 

Gun  metal  and  bronze. 

7S.97+21.03 

8729 

do.          do. 

13.6 

Hard,  mill  brasses. 

34.92+05.0? 

8065 

White. 

1.4 

Small  bells. 

15.17+S1.S3 

7447 

Very  white. 

3.1 

Speculum  metal. 

11.92 -"-83.19 

7472 

do.       do. 

3.1 

Files,  toush. 

jiJoTE. — No  simple  binary  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  or  of  copper  and  tin,  works 
as  pleasantly  in  turning,  planing,  or  filin?,  as  if  combined  wiih  a  small  propor- 
tion of  a  third  fusible  metal ;  generally  lead  is  added  to  copper  and  zinc,  and 
Zinc  to  copper  and  tin. 

9 


98  ALLOYS    FOR  BRONZE.      VALUABLE   ALLOYS. 

To  Polish  Brass.  —  When  the  Brass  is  made  smooth  by  turning  or 
filing  witii  a  very  fine  file,  it  maybe  rubbed  witli  a  smooth  fine  grained 
stone,  or  with  charcoal  and  water.  When  it  is  made  quite  smooth  and  ("ree 
from  scratches  it  may  be  polished  with  rotten  stone  and  oil,  alcohol  or  spirita 
t)f  turpentine. 

To  Clean  Brass.  —  If  there  is  any  oily  substance  on  the  Brass  boil 
it  in  a  solution  of  potash,  or  strong  lye.  Mix  equal  quantities  of  Nitric 
and  Sulphuric  Acicis  in  a  stone  or  earthern  vessel,  let  it  stand  a  few  hours, 
stirring  it  occasionally  with  a  stick,  then  dip  the  Brass  in  the  solution, 
but  take  it  out  immediately  and  rinse  it  in  soft  water,  and  wipe  it  in  saw 
dust  till  it  is  dry. 

Glue. —  Powdered  Chalk  added  to  common  Glue  strengthens  it.  A 
Glue  which  will  resist  the  action  of  water  is  made  by  boihng  1  pound  of 
Glue  in  2  quarts  of  skimmecT  Milk. 

ALLOYS  FOR  BRONZE. 

Professor  Hoffman,  of  the  Prussian  artillery,  has  made  esperimcnts  with 
the  view  of  obtaining  a  good  statuary  bronze,  and  recommends  the  alloys 
ranging  between  the  two  following  admixtures  ;  — 
1st.     To  produce  the  reddest  bronze. 

88.75  Copper  Zinc  (7  atoms  copper,  1  atom  zinc). 
1L25  Copper  Tin  (3  atoms  copper,  1  atom  tin). 

100-00 


2nd.     To  produce  a  cheap  bronze,  with  a  bright  yellow  color,  almost 
golden. 


93  5  CoppE 
6.5  CopPE 

100.0 


n;R  Zinc  (2  atoms  copper,  1  atom  zinc). 
ER  Tin  (3  atoms  copper,  1  atom  tin). 


VALUABLE  ALLOYS. 

'  The  "Paris  Scientific  Review"  has  published,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
industrious  workers  in  metals,  the  best  receipts  for  composing  all  the  various 
factitious  metals  used  in  the  arts  ;  the  following  are  a  few  :  — 

Statuary  Bronze. — Daroet  has  discovered  that  this  is  composed  of 
copper,  91.4  ;  zinc,  5.5  ;  lead,  L7 ;  tin,  1.4. 

JJkonze  for  Cannon  of  LAKf;E  Calihre. — Copper,  90  ;  tin,  7. 

Pi.NCHBECK. — Copper,  5  ;  zinc,  L 

Bronze  for  Cannox  of  Small  Calibre. — Copper,  93;  tin,  7- 

Bronze  for  Mepals.— Copper,  100;  tin,??. 

Alloy  for  Cymbals.— ('op|)or,  80  ;   tin,  20. 

Metal  for  the  Mirrors  of  llEtLECTiNc  Telescopes. — Copper, 
100;  tin,  50. 

White  .ARfiENTAN. — Copper,  f? ;  nickel,  3  ;  zinc,  35;  this  beautiful 
composition  is  in  imitation  of  silver. 

('hinese  Silver. — M.  Maircr  discovered  the  following  proportions:  — 
Silver,  2  5;  copper,  65.21;  zinc,  19..'i2;  nickel,  13;  cobalt  of  iron,  0.12. 

TiJTKNAC— Co[)|icr,  8  ;  nickel,  3  ;  zinc,  5. 

Printing  CiiAitAcrERS. —  Lead,  4;  antimony,  L  For  stereotype 
plates — Lead,  9 ;  antimony,  2 ;  bismuth,  2. 


MECHANICAL    DRAWING 


AND 


INSTRUMENTS    USED    IN    DRAWING. 


INSTRUMENTS   USED    IN    DRAWING,  101 

INSTRUMENTS    USED    IN    DRAWING. 

To  facilitate  the  construction  of  geometrical  figures,  we  add  a  short  de- 
scription of  a  few  useful  instruments  which  do  not  belong  to  the  common 
pocket-case. 

Let  there  be  a  flat  ruler,  AB,  from  one  to  two  feet  in 
length,  for  which  the  common  Gunter's  scale  may  be  sub- 
stituted ;  and,  secondly,  a  triangnlar  piece  of  wood,  a,b,c, 
flat,  and  about  the  same  thickness  as  the  ruler :  the  sides, 
ab  and  be,  of  which  are  equal  to  one  another,  and  form  a 
right  angle  at  A.  For  the  convenience  of  sliding,  there  is  -^ 
usually  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  triangle,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  figure. 

By  means  of  these  simple  instruments  many  very  useful  geometrical 
problems  may  be  performed.  Thus,  to  draw  a  line  through  a  given  point 
parallel  to  a  given  line.  Lay  the  triangle  on  the  paper  so  that  one  of  its 
sides  will  coincide  with  the  given  line  to  which  the  parallel  is  to  be  drawn ; 
then,  keeping  the  triangle  steady,  lay  the  ruler  on  the  paper,  with  its  edge 
applied  to  either  of  the  other  sides  of  the  triangle ;  then,  keeping  the  ruler 
firm,  move  the  triangle  along  its  edge,  up  or  down,  to  the  given  point ;  the 
side  of  the  triangle  which  was  placed  on  the  given  line  will  always  keep 
parallel  to  itself,  and  hence  a  parallel  may  be  drawn  through  the  given  point. 

To  erect  a  perpendicular  on  a  given  line,  and  from  any  given  point  in 
that  line,  we  have  only  to  apply  the  ruler  to  the  given  line,  and  place  the 
triangle  so,  that  its  right  angle  shall  touch  the  given  point  in  the  line,  emd 
one  of  the  sides  about  the  right  angle,  placed  to  the  edge  of  the  ruler — the 
oilier  side  will  give  the  perpendicular  required. 

If  the  given  point  be  either  above  or  below  the  line,  the  process  is  equally 
easj'.  Place  one  of  the  sides  of  the  triangle  about  the  right  angle  on  the 
given  line,  and  the  ruler  on  the  side  opposite  the  right  angle,  then  slide  the 
triangle  on  the  edge  of  the  ruler  till  the  given  point  from  which  the  perpen- 
dicular is  to  be  drawn  is  on  the  other  side,  then  this  side  will  give  the  per- 
pendicular. 

Other  problems  may  be  performed  with  these  instruments,  the  method  of 
doing  which  it  will  be  easy  for  the  reader  to  contrive  for  himself. 

When  arcs  of  circles  of  great  diameter  are  to  be  drawn,  the  use  of  a 
compass  may  be  substituted  by  a  very  simple  contrivance.  Draw  the  chord 
of  the  arc  to  be  described,  and  place  a  pin  at  each 
extremity,  A  and  B,  then  place  two  rulers  jointed 
at  C,  and  forming  an  angle,  ACB  equal  to  the  sup- 
plement of  half  the  given  number  of  degrees  ;  that 
is  to  say,  the  number  oi  degrees  which  the  arc 
whose  chord  given  is  to  contain,  is  to  be  halved,  and  this  half  being  sub- 
tracted from  180  degrees,  will  give  the  degrees  which  form  the  angle  at 
which  the  rulers  are  placed,  that  is,  the  angle  ACB.     This  being  done,  the 

9*- 


r 


102  INSTRUMENTS    TJSED    IN    DRAWING. 

edges  of  the  rulers  are  moved  along  against  the  pins,  and  a  pencil  at  C  will 
describe  the  arc  required. 

Large  circles  may  be  described  by  a  contrivance  equally  simple.  On 
an  asle,  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  hal(  long,  there  are  placed  two 
wheels,  M  and  F,  of  which  one  is  fixed  to  the  axle,  namely  F, 
and  the  other  is  capable  of  being  shifted  to  different  parts  of  m 
the  axle,  and,  by  means  of  a  thumb-screw,  made  capable  of 
being  fixed  at  any  point  on  the  axle.  These  wheels  are  of  dif- 
ferent diameters,  say  of  3  and  6  inches,  the  fixed  wheel  F  being  the  largest. 
This  instrument  being  moved  on  the  paper,  the  circles  M  and  F  will  roll, 
and  describe  circles  of  different  radii :  the  axle  will  always  point  to  the 
centre  of  these  circles,  and  there  will  be  this  proportion  ; 

As  the  diameter  of  the  large  wheel  is  to  ihe  difference  of  the  diameters 
of  the  two  wheels,  so  is  the  radius  of  the  circle  to  be  described  by  the  large 
wheel  to  the  distance  of  the  two  wheels  on  the  axle. 

If  the  diameters  of  the  wheels  are  as  above  stated,  and  it  is  required  to 
describe  a  circle  of  3  feet  radius,  then  from  the  above  proportion  we  have 
6:6  —  3  :  :  3  feet  or  36  inches  ;  18  inches  =  the  distance  of  the  two  wheels, 
to  describe  a  circle  6  feet  in  diameter. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  it  will  be  best  to  make  the  difference  of  the 
wheels  greater  if  large  circles  are  to  be  described,  as  then  a  shorter  instru- 
ment will  serve  the  purpose. 

We  will  conclude  tlicse  instructions,  by  making  a  few  remarks  on  the 
Diagonal  Scale  and  Sector,  the  great  use  of  the  latter  of  which,  especially, 
is  seldom  explained  to  ihe  young  mechanic. 

The  diagonal  scale  to  be  found  on  the  plain  scale  in  common  pocket- 
cases  of  instruments,  is  a  contrivance  for  measuring  very  small  divisions  of 
lines;  as,  for  instance,  hundredth  parts  of  an  inch. 

Suppose  the  accompanying  cut  to  represent  an  enlarged     B     E       A 
view  of  two  divisions  of  the  diagonal  scale,  and  the  bottom  and     \ 
top  lines  to  be  divided  into  two  parts,  each  representing  the    ? 
tenth  part  of  an  inch.    Now,  the  perpendicular  lines  BC,  AD,   t[ 
are  each  divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  which  are  joined  by  the    p- 

crossing  lines,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.,  and  ihc  diagonals  I5F,  DI'^.,  are    ^1 ^y_ 

drawn  as  in  the  fijrure.  Now,  as  the  division  FC  is  the  tenth  s' 
part  of  an  inch,  and  as  the  line  FB  continually  approaches  C 
nearer  and  nearer  to  BC,  till  it  meets  it  in  B,  it  will  follow,  that  the  part  of 
the  line  1  cut  off  by  this  diagonal  will  be  a  tenth  part  of  FC,  because  Bl  is 
only  one-tenth  part  of  BC  ;  so,  likewise,  2  will  represent  two-tenth  parts, 
3  thrcc-tcnlli  parts,  and  so  on  to  9,  which  is  nine-tenth  parts,  and  10,  ten- 
tenth  parts,  or  the  whole  tenth  of  an  inch  ;  so  that,  by  means  of  this  diago- 
nal, we  arrive  at  divisions  equal  to  tentli  parts  of  tenth  parts  of  an  inch,  or 
huiidri:<liiis  of  an  inch.  With  this  consideration,  an  examination  of  the 
scale  Itself    will    easily    show   tlie   whole    matter.     It   may   bo    observed, 


THE     SECTOR.  103 

that  if  half  an  inch  and  the  quarter  of  an  inch  be  divided,  in  the  same  man- 
ner, into  tenths  and  tenths  of  tenths,  we  may  get  thus  two-hundredth  and 
four-hundredth  parts  of  an  inch. 


THE    SECTOR. 

This  very  useful  instrument  consists  of  two  equal  rulers  each  six  inches 
long,  joined  together  by  a  brass  folding  joint.  These  rulers  are  generally 
made  of  boxwood  or  ivory;  and  on  the  face  of  the  instrument,  several  lines 
or  scales  are  engraven.  Some  of  these  lines  or  scales  proceed  from  the 
centre  of  the  joint,  and  are  called  sectorial  lines,  to  distinguish  them  from 
others  which  are  drawn  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  instrument,  similar  to 
those  on  the  common  Gunter's  scale. 

The  sectorial  lines  are  drawn  twice  on  the  same  face  of  the  instrument ; 
that  is  to  say,  each  line  is  drawn  on  both  legs.     Those  on  each  face  are, 

A  scale  of  equal  parts,  marked  L, 

A  line  of  chords,  marked  C, 

A  line  of  secants,  marked  S, 

A  line  of  polygons,  marked        P,  or  Pol. 
These  sectorial  lines  are  marked  on  one  face  of  the  instrument;  and  on  the 
other  there  are  the  following  ; 

A  line  of  sines,  marked  S, 

A  line  of  tangents,  marked        T, 

A  line  of  tangents  to  a  less  radius,  marked  t. 
This  last  line  is  intended  to  supply  the  defect  of  the  former,  and  extends 
from  about  45  to  75  degrees. 

The  lines  of  chords,  sines,  tangents,  and  secants,  but  not  the  line  of  poly- 
gons, are  numbered  from  the  centre,  and  are  so  disposed  as  to  form  equal 
angles  at  the  centre;  and  it  follows  from  this,  that  at  whatever  distance  the 
sector  is  opened,  the  angles  which  the  lines  form,  will  always  be  respectively 
equal.  The  distance,  therefore,  between  10  and  10,  on  the  two  lines  marked 
L,  will  be  equal  to  the  distance  of  60  and  60  on  the  two  lines  of  chords,  and 
also  to  90  and  90  on  the  two  lines  of  sines,  &c.  at  any  particular  opening  of 
the  sector. 

Any  extent  measured  with  a  pair  of  compasses,  from  the  centre  of  the 
joint  to  any  division  on  the  sectorial  lines,  is  called  a  lateral  distance  ;  and 
any  extent  taken  from  a  point  in  a  line  on  the  one  leg,  to  the  like  point  on 
the  similar  line  on  the  other  leg,  is  called  a  transverse  or  parallel  distance. 

With  these  remarks,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  explain  the  use  of  the  sec- 
tor, in  so  far  as  it  is  likely  to  be  serviceable  to  mechanics. 

USE    OF   THE    LINE   OF    LINES. 

This  line,  as  was  before  observed,  is  marked  L,  and  its  uses  are, 
To  Divide  a  line  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  :  Take  the  length  of  the 
line  by  the  compasses,  and  placing  one  of  the  points  on  that  number  in  the 


104  THE     SECTOR. 

line  of  lines  which  denotes  the  number  of  parts  into  which  the  given  line  is 
to  be  divided,  open  the  sector  till  the  other  point  of  the  compasses  touches 
Vlie  same  division  on  the  line  of  lines  marked  on  the  other  leg;  then,  the 
sector  being  kept  at  the  same  width,  the  distance  from  1  on  the  line  L  on 
the  one  leg,  to  1  on  the  line  L  on  the  other,  will  give  the  length  of  one  of 
the  equal  divisions  of  the  given  line  to  be  divided.  Thus,  to  divide  a  given 
line  into  seven  equal  parts  : — take  the  length  of  the  given  line  with  the  com- 
passes, and  setting  one  point  on  7,  on  the  line  L  of  one  of  the  legs,  move 
the  other  leg  out  until  the  other  point  of  the  compasses  touch  7  on  the  line 
L  of  that  leg;  this  may  be  called  the  transverse  distance  of  7  on  the  line  of 
lines.  Now,  keeping  the  sector  at  the  same  opening,  the  transverse  distance 
of  1  will  be  the  length  of  one  of  the  7  equal  divisions  of  the  given  line;  the 
transverse  distance  of  2  will  be  two  of  these  divisions,  tScc. 

It  will  sometimes  happen,  that  the  line  to  be  divided  will  be  too  long  for 
the  largest  opening  of  the  sector  ;  and  in  this  case  we  take  the  half,  or  third, 
or  fourth  of  the  line,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  then  the  transverse  distance  of  1  to 
1,  will  be  a  half,  a  third,  or  a  fourth  of  the  required  equal  part. 

To  divide  a  given  line  into  any  number  of  parts  that  shall  have  a  certain 
relation  or  proportion  to  each  other  :  Take  the  length  of  the  whole  line  to  be 
divided,  and  placing  one  point  of  the  compasses  at  that  division  on  the  line 
of  lines  on  one  leg  of  the  instrument  which  expresses  the  sum  of  all  the 
parts  into  which  the  given  line  is  to  be  divided,  and  open  the  sector  till  the 
other  point  of  the  compasses  is  on  the  corresponding  division  on  the  line  of 
lines  of  the  other  leg.  This  is  evidently  making  the  sum  of  the  parts  into 
which  the  given  line  is  to  be  divided  a  transverse  distance  ;  and  when  this 
is  done,  the  proportional  parts  will  be  found  by  taking,  with  the  same  open- 
ing of  the  sector,  the  transverse  distances  of  the  parts  required. — To  divide 
a  given  line  into  three  parts,  in  the  proportion  of  2,  3,  4:  The  sum  of  these 
is  9  ;  make  the  given  line  a  transverse  distance  between  9  and  9  on  the  two 
lines  of  lines  ;  then  the  transverse  distances  of  tte  severed  numbers  2,  3,  4, 
will  give  the  proportional  parts  required. 

To  find  a  fourth  proportional  to  three  given  lines  :  take  (he  lateral  distance 
of  the  second,  and  make  it  the  transverse  distance  of  the  first,  then  will  the 
transverse  distance  of  the  third  be  the  lateral  distance  of  the  fourth;  then, 
let  there  be  given  6:3::  8, — make  the  lateral  distance  of  3  the  transverse 
distance  of  6;  then  will  the  transverse  distance  of  8  be  the  lateral  distance 
of  4,  the  fourth  proportional  required. 

This  sector  will  be  found  highly  serviceable  in  drawing  plans.  For  in- 
stance, if  it  is  wished  to  reduce  the  drawing  of  a  steam  engine  from  a  scale 
of  1  J  inches  to  the  foot,  to  another  of  five-eiglitlis  to  the  foot.  Now,  in  1  ^ 
inches  there  arc  12  eighth  parts  ;  so  that  the  drawing  will  be  reduced  in  the 
proportion  of  12  to  5.  Take  the  lateral  distance  of  5,  and  keep  the  com- 
passes at  this  opening;  then  open  the  sector  till  the  points  of  the  compasses 
mark  the  transverse  distance  of  12  j  keep  now  the  sector  at  this  opening, 


MECHANICAL    DRAWING   AND    PERSPECTIVE.  105 

c 

and  any  measure  taken  on  the  dpawing,  to  be  copied  and  laid  off  on  the 
sector  as  a  lateral  distance, — the  transverse  distance  taken  from  that  point 
will  give  the  corresponding  measure  to  be  laid  down  in  the  new  drawing. 

If  the  length  of  the  side  of  a  triangle,  of  which  we  have  the  drawing,  is 
to  be  reckoned  45  ;  what  are  the  lengths  of  the  other  two  sides  ?  Take  the 
length  of  the  side  given,  by  the  compasses,  and  open  the  sector  till  the  meas- 
ure be  the  transverse  distance  of  45  to  45 ;  then  the  lengths  of  the  other 
sides  being  applied  transversely,  wiW  give  their  numerical  lengths. 

USE   OF    THE    LINE    OF    CHORDS. 

By  means  of  the  sector,  we  may  dispense  with  the  protractor.  Thus,  to 
lay  down  an  angle  of  any  number  of  degrees  : — take  the  radius  of  the  circle 
on  the  compasses,  and  open  the  sector  till  this  becomes  the  transverse  dis- 
tance of  60  on  the  line  of  chords;  then  take  the  transverse  distance  of  the 
required  number  of  degrees,  keeping  the  sector  at  the  same  opening;  and 
this  transverse  distance  being  marked  off  on  an  arc  of  the  circle  whose  ra- 
dius was  taken,  will  be  the  required  number  of  degrees. 

We  will  not  enter  farther  on  the  use  of  the  sectorial  lines,  as  what 
we  have  said  will,  we  hope,  be  found  sufEcient  for  the  purposes  of  the 
practical  mechanic. 

MECHANICAL    DRAWING    AND    PERSPECTIVE. 

A  FLAT  rectangular  board  is  first  to  be  provided,  of  any  convenient  size, 
as  from  18  to  30  inches,  and  from  16  to  24  inches  broad.  It  may  be  made 
of  fir,  plane  tree,  or  mahogany;  its  face  must  be  plqned  smooth  and  flat, 
and  the  sides  and  ends  as  nearly  as  possible  at  right  angles  to  each  other — 
the  bottom  of  the  board  and  the  left  side  should  be  made  perfectly  so  ;  and 
this  comer  should  be  marked,  so  that  the  stock  of  the  square  may  be  always 
applied  to  the  bottom  and  left  hand  side  of  the  board.  To  prevent  the 
board  from  casting,  it  is  usual  to  pannel  it  on  the  back  or  on  the  sides. 

A  T  square  must  also  be  provided,  which  by  means  of  a  thumb-screw 
fixed  in  the  stock,  may  be  made  to  answer  cither  the  purposes  of  a  com- 
mon square,  or  bevel,— the  one-half  of  the  stock  being  movable  about  the 
screw,  and  the  other  fixed  at  right  angles  on  the  blade.  The  blade  ought 
to  be  somewhat  flexible,  and  equal  in  length  to  the  length  of  the  board. 

Besides  these,  there  will  be  required  a  case  of  mathematical  instruments; 
in  the  selection  of  which  it  should  be  observed,  that  the  bow  compass  is 
more  frequently  defective  than  any  of  the  other  instruments.  After  using 
any  of  the  ink  feet,  they  should  be  dried ;  and  if  they  do  not  draw  properly, 
the}'  ought  to  be  sharpened  and  brought  to  an  equal  length  in  the  blade,  by 
grinding  on  a  hone. 

The  colors  most  useful  are,  Indian  ink,  gamboge,  Prussian  blue,  vermil- 
ion, and  lake.  With  these,  all  colors  necessary  for  drawing  machinery  or 
buildmgs  may  be  made  ;  so  that,  instead  of  purchasing  a  box  of  colors,  we- 


106  MECHANICAL    DRAWING   AND    PEESPECTIVE. 

would  advise  that  those  for  whom  this  book  is  intended  should  procure 
these  cakes  separately  :  the  gamboge  may  be  bought  from  an  apothecary — 
a  pennyworth  will  serve  a  lifetime.  In  choosing  the  rest,  they  should  be 
rubbed  against  the  teelh,  and  those  which  feel  smoothest  are  of  the  best 
quality. 

Hair  pencils  will  also  be  necessary,  made  of  camel's  hair,  and  of  various 
sizes.  They  ought  to  taper  gradually  to  a  point  when  wet  in  the  mouth, 
and  should,  after  being  pressed  against  the  finger,  spring  back. 

Black-lead  pencils  will  also  be  necessary.  They  ought  not  to  be  very 
soft,  nor  so  hard  that  their  traces  cannot  be  easily  erased  by  the  Indian 
rubber.  In  choosing  paper,  that  which  will  best  suit  this  kind  of  drawing 
is  thick,  and  has  a  hardish  feel,  not  very  smooth  on  the  surface,  yet  free 
from  knots. 

The  paper  on  which  the  drawing  is  to  be  made,  must  be  chosen  of  a 
good  quality  and  convenient  size.  It  is  then  to  be  wet  with  a  sponge  and 
clean  water,  on  the  opposite  side  from  that  on  which  the  drawing  is  to  be 
made.  When  the  paper  absorbs  the  water,  which  may  be  seen  by  the  wet- 
ted side  becoming  dim,  as  its  surface  is  viewed  slantwise  against  the  light, 
it  is  to  be  laid  on  the  drawing  board  with  the  wetted  side  next  the  board. 
About  half  an  inch  must  be  turned  up  on  a  straight  edge  all  round  the 
paper,  and  then  fastened  on  the  board.  This  is  done  because  the  paper 
when  wet  is  enlarged,  and  the  edges  being  fixed  on  the  board,  act  as  stretch- 
ers when  the  paper  contracts  by  drying.  To  prevent  the  paper  from  con- 
tracting before  the  paste  has  been  sufficiently  fastened  by  drying,  the  paper 
is  usually  wet  on  the  upper  surface,  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  paste  mark. 
When  the  paper  is  thoroughly  dried,  it  will  be  found  to  lie  firmly  and  equally 
on  the  board,  and  is  then  fit  for  use. 

If  the  drawing  is  to  be  made  from  a  copy,  we  ought  first  to  consider  what 
scale  it  is  to  be  drawn  to.  If  it  is  to  be  equal  in  size  to,  or  larger  than  the 
copy,  a  scale  should  be  made  accordingly,  by  which  the  dimensions  of 
the  several  parts  of  the  drawing  are  to  be  regulated.  The  diagonal  scale, 
n  simple  and  beautiful  contrivance,  will  be  here  found  of  great  use  for  the 
more  minute  divisions ;  and  whenever  the  drawing  is  to  be  inatle  to  a  scale 
of  1  inch,  i  inch,  4  inch  to  the  foot,  a  scale  should  be  drawn  of  20  or  30 
equal  parts;  the  last  of  which  should  be  subdivided  into  12,  and  a  diagonal 
scale  fonned  on  the  same  principles  as  the  common  one,  but  with  eight 
parallels  and  12  diagonals,  to  express  inches  and  eighths  of  an  inch.  For 
making  such  scales  to  any  proportion,  the  line  L  on  the  sector  will  be  found 
yery  convenient. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the  penciling,  that  an  accurate  outline  be 
drawn,  for  on  this  much  of  the  value  of  the  picture  will  depend.  The  pen- 
cil marks  should  be  distinct,  yet  not  heavy,  and  the  use  of  the  rubber  avoided 
as  much  as  possible,  as  its  frequent  application  ruflles  the  surface  of  the 
paper.    The  methods  already  given  for  constructing  geometrical  figures 


MECHANICAL    DRAWING     AND  PERSPECTIVE.  107 

« 

will  be  here  found  applicable,  and  the  use  of  the  T  square,  parallel  ruler, 
&c.,  will  suggest  themselves  whenever  they  require  to  be  employed. 

The  drawing  thus  made  of  any  machine  or  building  is  called  a  plan. 
Plans  are  of  three  kinds — a  ground  plan,  or  bird's-eye  view,  an  elevation  or 
front  view,  and  a  perspective  plan. 

When  a  view  is  taken  of  the  teeth  of  a  wheel,  with  the  circumference 
towards  the  eye,  the  teeth  appear  to  be  nearer  as  they  are  removed  from 
the  middle  point  of  the  circumference  opposite  the  eye.  and  it  may  not  be 
out  of  place  here  to  give  the  method  of  representing  them  on  paper  : — If 
AB  be  the  circumference  of  a  wheel  as  viewed  by 
the  eye,  and  it  is  required  to  represent  the  teeth  as 
they  appear  on  it,  only  half  of  the  circumference  can 
be  seen  in  this  way  at  one  time,  consequently  we  can  A[J 
only  represent  the  half  of  the  teelh.  On  AB  describe 
a  semicircle,  which  divide  into  half  as  many  equal  parts  as  the  wheel  has 
teeth;  then  from  each  of  these  points  of  division  draw  perpendiculars  to  the 
wheel  AB,  then  will  these  perpendiculars  mark  the  relative  places  of  the 
teeth. 

When  the  outline  is  completed  in  pencil,  it  is  next  to  be  carefully  gone 
over  with  Indian  ink,  which  is  to  be  rubbed  down  with  a  little  water,  on  a 
plate  of  glass  or  eathemware — so  as  to  be  sufficiently  fluid  to  flow  easily 
out  of  the  pen,  and  at  the  same  time  have  a  sufficient  body  of  color.  While 
drawing  the  ink  lines,  the  measurements  should  be  repeated,  so  as  to  cor- 
rect any  error  that  may  have  occurred  during  the  penciling.  The  screw  in 
the  drawing  pen  will  regulate  the  breadth  of  the  strokes ;  which  should  not 
be  alike  heavy  5  those  strokes  being  the  heaviest  which  bound  the  dark  part 
of  the  shades.  Should  any  line  be  wrong  drawn  with  the  ink,  it  may  be 
taken  out  by  means  of  a  sponge  and  water,  which  could  not  be  done  if 
common  writing  ink  were  employed. 

In  preparing  for  coloring  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  a  hair  pencil  is  to  be 
fixed  at  each  end  of  a  small  piece  of  wood,  made  in  the  form  of  a  common 
pencil,  one  of  which  is  to  be  used  with  color,  and  the  other  with  water  only. 
If  the  color  is  to  be  laid  on,  so  as  to  represent  a  flat  surface,  it  ought  to  be 
spread  on  equally,  and  there  is  here  no  use  for  the  water  brush ;  but  if  it  is 
to  represent  a  curved  surface,  then  the  color  is  to  be  laid  on  the  part  in- 
tended to  be  shaded,  and  softened  towards  the  light  by  washing  with  the 
water  brush.  In  all  cases  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  color  ought 
to  be  laid  on  very  thin,  otherwise  it  will  be  more  difiicult  to  manage,  and 
will  never  make  so  fine  a  drawing. 

In  colors  even  of  the  best  quality,  we  sometimes  meet  with  gritty  particles, 
which  it  is  desirable  to  avoid.  Instead  of  rubbing  the  color  on  a  plate  with 
a  little  water,  as  is  usual,  it  will  be  better  to  wet  the  color,  and  rub  it  on  the 
point  of  the  forefinger,  letting  the  dissolved  part  drop  ofi"  the  finger  on  to 
the  plate. 


108  MECHANICAL     DRAWING    AND    PERSPECTIVE. 

In  using  the  Indian  ink,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  lo  mix  it  with  a 
little  blue  and  a  small  quantity  of  lake,  which  renders  it  much  more  easily 
wrought  with,  and  this  is  the  more  desirable  as  it  is  the  most  frequently  used 
of  all  the  other  colors  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  the  shades  being  all  made 
with  this  color. 

The  depth  and  extent  of  the  shades  will  depend  on  various  circumstan- 
ces— on  the  figure  of  the  object  to  be  shaded,  the  position  of  the  eye  of  the 
observer,  and  the  direction  in  which  the  light  comes,  &c.  The  position  of 
the  eye  will  vary  the  proportionate  size  of  any  object  in  a  picture  when 
drawn  in  perspective.  Thus,  if  a  perspective  view  of  a  steam  engine  is 
given,  the  eye  being  supposed  to  be  placed  opposite  the  end  nearest  the 
nozzles,  an  inch  of  the  nozzle  rod  will  appear  much  larger  than  an  inch  of 
the  pump  rod  which  feeds  the  cistern ;  but  if  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed 
opposite  the  other  end  of  the  engine,  the  reverse  will  be  the  case.  But  in 
drawing  elevations  and  ground  plans  of  machinery,  every  part  of  the  ma- 
chine is  drawn  to  the  proper  scale — an  inch  or  foot  in  one  part  of  the  ma- 
chine, being  just  the  same  size  as  an  inch  or  foot  in  any  other  part  of  the 
machine.  So  that  by  measuring  the  dimensions  of  any  part  of  the  drawing, 
and  then  applying  the  compass  to  the  scale,  we  determine  the  real  size  of 
the  part  so  measured.  Whereas,  if  the  view  were  given  in  perspective,  we 
would  be  obliged  to  make  allowance  for  the  effect  of  distance,  &,c. 

The  light  is  always  supposed  to  fall  on  the  picture  at  an  angle  of  forty- 
five  degrees,  from  which  it  follows,  that  the  shade  of  any  object,  which  is 
intended  lo  rise  from  the  plane  of  the  picture,  or  appear  prominent,  will  just 
be  equal  in  length  to  the  prominence  of  the  object. 

The  shades,  therefore,  should  be  as  extictly  measured  as  any  other  part 
of  the  drawing,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  they  all  fall  in  the  proper  di- 
rection, as  the  light  is  supposed  to  come  from  one  point  only. 

It  is  frequently  of  great  use  for  the  mechanic  to  take  a  hasty  copy  of  a 
drawing,  and  many  methods  have  been  given  for  this  purpose — by  macliines, 
tracing,  &c.     We  give  the  following  as  easy,  accurate,  and  convenient. 

Mix  equal  parts  of  turpentine  and  drying  oil,  and  with  a  rag  lay  it  on  a 
sheet  of  good  silk  paper,  allowing  the  paper  to  lie  by  for  two  or  three  days 
to  dry,  and  when  it  is  so  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  To  use  it,  lay  it  on  the  draw- 
ing to  be  copied,  and  the  prepared  paper  being  nearly  transparent,  the  lines 
of  the  drawing  will  be  seen  through  it,  and  may  be  easily  traced  with  a 
black-lead  pencil.  The  lines  on  the  oiled  paper  will  be  quite  distinct  when 
it  is  laid  on  while  paper.  Thus,  if  the  mechanic  has  little  time  to  spare,  he 
may  take  a  c<i|)y  and  lay  it  by  lo  be  recopied  at  his  leisure. 

Care  and  perseverance  are  the  chief  requisites  for  attaining  perfection  in 
this  species  of  drawing.  Every  mechanic  should  know  something  of  it,  so 
that  ho  may  the  better  understand  how  to  execute  plans  that  may  be  sub- 
niitifil  to  him,  or  make  intelligible  lo  others  any  invention  he  himself  may 
make. 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


Geometry  is  the  science  which  investigates  and  demonstrates  the 
propei'ties  of  lines  on  surfaces  and  solids :  hence,  Practicai  Ge- 
ometry is  the  method  of  applying  the  rules  of  the  science  to  practical 
purposes. 


10 


110  DEFINITIONS    OF    ARITHMETICAL  SIGNS. 

DEFIMTION    OF    ARITHMETICAL    SIGNS   USED    IN 
THE    WORK. 

=  When  we  wish  to  state  that  one  quantitj-  or  number,  is  equal  to 
another  quantity  or  number,  the  sign  of  equalilij  =  is  employed.  Thus 
3  added  to  2  =  5,  or  3  added  to  2  is  equal  to  o. 

+  When  the  sum  of  two  quantities  or  numbers  is  to  be  taken,  the  sign 
plus  +  is  placed  between  them.  Thus  3  +  2  =  55  '^•1^  's,  the  sum  of  3 
and  2  is  5.     This  is  the  sign  of  Addition. 

—  When  the  difference  of  two  numbers  or  quantities  is  to  be  taken,  the 
sign  minus  —  is  used,  and  shows  that  the  latter  number  or  quantity  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  former.     Thus  5  —  2  =  3.     This  is  the  sign  of  Subtraction, 

X  When  the  product  of  any  two  numbers  or  quantities  is  to  be  taken, 
the  sign  into  X  is  placed  between  them.  Thus  3x2  =  6.  This  is  the 
sign  of  Multiplication. 

H-  When  we  are  to  take  the  quotient  of  two  quantities,  the  sign  by  -f-  is 

placed  between  them,  and  shows  that  the  former  is  to  be  divided  by  the 

fatter.     Thus  6-^2  =  3.     Tliis  is  the  sign  of  Division.     But  in  some  cases 

in  this  work,  ihc  mode  of  division  has  been,  to  place  the  dividend  above  a 

horizontal  line,  and  the  divisor  below  it,  in  the  form  of  a  vulgar  fraction, 

thus ! 

Dividend       ^      .  6       „ 

-^.  . =  Quotient.  -— =  6. 

Divisor  z 

When  the  square  of  any  number  'or  quantity  is  to  be  taken,  this  is  de- 
noted by  placing  a  small  fig'urc  2  above  it  to  the  right.  Thus  6^  shows  that 
the  square  of6  is  to  be  taken,  and  therefore  6^  =  6  x  6  =  36. 

When  wc  wish  to  show  that  the  scjuare  root  of  any  number  or  quantity  is 
to  be  taken,  this  is  denoted  by  placing  the  radical  sign  n'  before  it.  Thus 
s/36  shows  that  the  square  root  of  36  ought  to  be  taken,  hence  -/36  =  6. 

The  common  marks  of  proportion  are  also  used,  viz.,  :  :  :  :  as 
3:6   : :  4  :  8,  being  read  3  is  to  6  as  4  is  to  8. 

Tlie  applicailon  Of  thCSG  Z'.pi  t?  ±t  "vnression  of  niles  is  exceedingly 
simple.     Thus,  connected  with  the  circle  we  have  the  following  rules  : 

1st.  The  circumference  of  a  circle  will  be  found  by  multiplying  the  di- 
ameter by  3'1416. 

2d.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  may  be  found  by  dividing  the  circumfer- 
ence by  3-1416. 

3d.  The  area  of  a  circle  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  half  of  the  di- 
ameter, by  the  half  of  the  circumference,  or  by  niultipiying  together  the 
diameter  and  circumference,  and  <lividing  the  product  by  4,  or  by  squaring 
iJie  diameter  and  multiplying  by  -7804. 

Now  all  these  rules  may  be  thus  expressed  : 

1st.  diameter  X  3-1416  =  circumference. 

_,  circumference        ,. 

^-  ~    31416        ='»'*"'«^'"- 

diameter      circumference 
3d.  —  2 —  ^2  ~  ^'®*' 

diameter  X  circumference  . 

or, =  area.  • 

4 

or,  diameter*  X    7854  =  area. 


PRACTICAL     GEOMETRY. 


Practical  Geometry  is  an  important  branch  of  knowledge  to  all  who 
are  in  any  way  engaged  in  the  art  of  building.  The  workman,  as  well 
as  the  designer,  requires  its  aid ;  and  unless  he  is  acquainted  with 
some  of  the  leading  principles  of  the  science,  he  will  frequently  feel 
an  uncertainty  as  to  the  results  he  may  deduce  from  the  problems 
which  are  presented  to  his  notice. 


Problem   I. 
To  inscribe  an  Equilateral  Triangle  within  a  given  Circle. 
Let  A  B  c  be  a  circle ;  it  is  required  to  draw  within  it  a  triangle 

Fig.  1. 


■whose  sides  are  equal  to  one  another.  Commencing  from  any  point 
A,  mark  on  ihe  circumference  of  the  circle  a  series  of  spaces  equal 
to  the  radius  of  the  circle,  of  which  there  will  be  six,  and  draw  the 
arcs  A  D  D  B,  &c.  Then  join  every  alternate  point  as  a  b,  a  c,  c  a, 
and  the  several  Unes  will  together  form  an  equilateral  triangle. 


112 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


Problem    II. 

Within  a  given  Circle  to  inscribe  a  Square. 
Let  A  B  c  D  be  the  given  circle,  it  is  required  to  draw  a  square 

Fig.  2. 


"^^^-'' 

\^ 

r 

O              "^j 

Iv'--- 

/^ 

^B^'s^^iX 

^^A 

D 


within  it.  Draw  the  diameters  a  b,  c  d,  at  right  angles  to  each 
other;  or,  in  other  words,  draw  the  diameter  a  b,  and  form  a  per- 
pendicular bisecting  it.  Then  join  the  points  A  c,  c  b,  b  d,  d  a,  and 
the  figure  a  b  c  d  is  a  square  formed  within  a  given  circle. 


Problem   III. 

Within  a  given  Circle  to  inscribe  a  regular  Pentagon  ;  that  is,  a 
Polygon  of  five  Sides. 

Let  A  b  c  D  be  a  circle  in  which  it  is  required  to  draw  a  pentagon. 

Fig.  3. 


Draw  a  diameter  A  n,  and  perpendicular  to  it  anotlicr  diameter. 
Then  divide  o  b  into  two  equal  parts  in  the  point  e,  and  join  c  E  ;  and 
with  E  as  a  centre,  and  the  radius  t;  k,  draw  the  arc  c  f,  cutting  A  o 
in  K  :  and,  with  c  as  a  centre,  and  the  same  radius,  describe  the  arc 
F  G  ;  the  arcs  c  f,  g  f  intersect  each  other  in  the  point  f,  and  the 
arc  G  F  intersects  the  circflnifcrencc  of  the  circle  in  the  point  G. 
Join  the  points  c  and  o,  uiid  llnit  line  will  be  a  side  of  the  pentagon 
to  be  drawn.  Mark  oil  within  the  circumference  the  same  space, 
and  join  the  paints  a  h,  h  i,  i  k,  k  c,  and  the  figure  that  is  formed 
is  a  pentagon. 


PRACTICAL   GEOMETRY. 


113 


Problem  IV. 

Within  a  given  Circle  to  describe  a  regular  Hexagon  ;  that  is  to 
say,  a  Polygon  of  six  equal  Sides. 

Let  A  B  c  be  the  given  circle,  and  o  the  centre.      With  the  radius 

Fig.  4. 


of  the  circle  divide  it  inta  parts,  of  which  there  will  be  six,  and  con- 
nect the  points  a  d,  d  b,  Stc,  and  the  figure  a  d  b  e  c  f  will  be  a 
regular  hexagon. 


Problem  V. 

To  cut  off  the  Corners  of  a  given  Square,  so  as  to  form  a  regular 

Octagon. 

Let  A  B  c  D  be  the  given  square.     Draw  the  two  diagonal  lines 

Fig.  5. 


3J       K        M 


A  c,  and  B  D,  crossing  each  other  in  o.  Then,  with  the  radius  a  o, 
that  is,  half  the  diagonal,  and  with  a  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc 
E  F,  cutting  the  sides  of  the  square  in  e  and  f  ;  then,  from  b  as  a 
centre,  describe  the  arc  g  h  ;  and  in  like  manner  from  c  and  d  de- 
scribe the  arcs  i  k  and  l  m.  Draw  the  lines  x,  g,  f  i,  h  m,  and 
K  E,  and  these,  with  the  parts  of  the  given  square  G  f,  i  h,  M  k, 
and  E  L,  form  the  octagon  required. 

10* 


114  PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


Problem  VI. 

To  divide  a  given  Line  into  any  JVuinber  of  Parts,  which  Parts 
shall  be  in  the  same  Proportion  to  each  other  as  the  Parts  of  some 
other  given  Line,  whether  those  Parts  are  equal  or  unequal. 

Let  A  B  be  the  given  line  which  it  is  required  to  divide  in  the  same 

Fig.  6. 


manner  and  proportion  as  the  line  c  n,  whether  the  parts  are  equal 
or  unequal.  On  the  base  line  c  d,  form  an  equilateral  triangle  in  the 
manner  already  described  in  a  former  problem.  Then  take  the  dis- 
tance A  B,  and  with  e  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  f  g,  and  join  the 
points  F  and  G,  and  f  g  shall  be  equal  to  a  b.  Now,  if  from  the 
points  H  I  K,  which  are  the  divisions  of  the  line  c,  wc  draw  lines  to 
E,  as  H  E,  I  E,  and  ic  e,  these  lines  will  cut  f  g  in  the  points  a  b  c, 
which  will  divide  the  line  fg  into  parts  proportionate  to  the  divisions 
of  the  line  c  d. 

Problem  VII. 

On  a  given  Line  to  draw  a  Polygon  of  any  JVumber  of  Sides,  so 
that  (hut  Line  shall  be  one  Side  of  a  Polygon  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
to  find  the  Centre  of  a  Circle  which  shall  circumscribe  any  Poly- 
gon, the  Length  of  the  Side  of  the  Polygon  being  given. 

Wc  shall  here  show,  in  a  tabular  form,  the  length  of  the  radius  of 
a  circle,  which  shall  contain  the  given  line,  as  a  side  of  the  required 
polygon;  and  here  we  will  suppose  the  line  to  be  divided  into  one 
thousand  equal  parts,  and  the  radius  into  a  certain  numlier  of  like 
parts.  The  radius  of  the  circle  for  dilfercnt  figures  will  be  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

For  an  inscribed  Tri.mglc .577 

Square 701 

Pentagon 8r)0 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon ll.')2 

Octagon 1306.i 

Enneagon 1462 


PKACTICAL    GEOMETRY.  115 


Decagon 1618 

Endecagon 1775 

Dodecagon 1932 


By  this  table,  the  workman  may,  with  a  simple  proportion,  find  the 
radius  of  a  circle  which  shall  contain  a  polygon,  one  side  being  given  : 
thus,  if  it  be  required  to  draw  a  pentagon,  the  side  given  being  fifteen 
inches,  we  may  say  as  1000  is  to  15,  so  is  850,  the  tabular  number  for 
a  pentagon,  to  12  inches  and  seventy-five  hundredth  parts  of  an  inch, 
or  seven-tenths  and  a  half  o  fa  tenth  of  an  inch. 

We  may  here  give  another  table  for  the  construction  of  polygons, 
one  in  which  the  radius  of  the  circumscribing  circle  is  given.  If  it 
be  required  to  find  the  side  of  the  inscribed  polygon,  the  radius  being 
one  thousand  parts,  the  sides  of  the  different  polygons  will  be  accord- 
ing to  the"  following  scale  :  — 

The  Triangle 1732 

Square 1414 

Pentagon 1175 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon 867^ 

Octagon 765 

Enneagon 684 

Decagon 618 

Endecagon 563<i 

Dodecagon 517J 

Here,  as  in  the  case  already  menfioned,  the  law  of  proportion  ap- 
plies, and  the  statement  may  be  thus  made  :  as  one  thousand  is  to  the 
number  of  inches  contained  in  the  radius  of  the  given  circle,  so  is  the 
tabular  number  for  the  required  polygon  to  the  length  of  one  of  its 
sides  in  inches.  Thus,  let  it  be  supposed  that  we  have  a  circle  whose 
radius  in  inches  is  30,  and  that  we  wish  to  inscribe  an  octagon  within 
it ;  then  say  as  1000  is  to  30  inches,  so  is  765  to  22  inches  and  95-100 
parts  of  an  inch,  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  required  octagon. 

Method  of  Drawing  Curved  Lines. 

We  will  now  introduce  a  few  remarks  upon  the  method  of  drawing 
curved  lines,  and  also  give  some  rules  for  finding  the  forms  of  mould- 
ings when  they  are  to  mitre  together,  that  is  to  say,  of  raking 
mouldings,  and  of  bevel  work  in  general.  It  will  also  be  necessary 
to  make  a  few  remarks  upon  the  form  of  ribs  for  domes  and  groins,  a 
knowledge  of  which  is  so  necessary  to  the  builder,  that  without  it  the 
workman  cannot  correctly  execute  his  task.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  state,  that  all  these  mechanical  operations  are  founded  upon  geo- 
metrical principles;  and,  unless  he  is  acquainted  with  these,  the 
workman  cannot  hope  to  succeed  in  his  attempt  to  excel  in  his  art, — 
one  which  is  necessary  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  all  com- 
munities. 


116 


PRACTICAL   GOEMETRY. 


Problem  VIII. 

To  draw  on  Ellipse  with  fhe  Rule  and  Compasses,  the  transverse  and 
conjugate  Diameters  being  given  ;  that  is,  the  Length  and  Width. 

Let  A  B  be  the  transverse  or  longest  diameter ;  c  d  the  conjugate 

Fig.  7. 


or  shortest  diameter ;  and  o  the  point  of  their  intersection,  that  is, 
the  centre  of  the  ellipse.  Take  the  distance  o  c  or  o  d  ;  and,  taking 
A  as  one  point,  mark  that  distance  A  e  upon  the  line  a  o.      Divide 

0  E  into  three  equal  parts,  and  take  from  a  f,  a  distance  e  f,  equal 
to  one  of  those  parts.  Make  o  g  equal  to  o  f.  With  the  radius  f  g, 
and  F  and  g  as  centres,  strike  arcs  which  shall  intersect  each  other 
in  the  points  i  and  h.    Then  draw  the  lines  h  f  k,  h  g  m,  and  i  f  l,, 

1  G  N.  With  F  as  a  centre,  and  the  radius  a  f,  describe  the  arc 
L  A  K  ;  and,  from  g  as  a  centre,  with  the  same  radius,  describe  the 
arc  M  B  N.  With  the  radius  h  c,  and  h  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc 
K  c  M  ;  and,  from  the  point  i,  with  the  radius  i  n,  describe  the  arc 
L,  D  M.  The  figure  a  c  b  d  is  an  ellipse,  formed  of  four  arcs  of  cir- 
cles. 

Problem  IX. 

To  draw  an  Ellipse  by  means  of  two  Concentric  Circles. 

Fig.  8. 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY.  117 

Let  AB  be  the  transverse,  and  e  f  the  conjugate  diameter,  and  o 
the  centre  of  an  ellipse  to  be  drawn.  From  o  with  the  radius  o  A, 
desciibe  the  circle  a  c  b  D.and  from  the  same  centre  describe  another 
circle  g  e  h  f.  Divide  the  outer  circle  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts  ;  the  greater  the  number,  the  more  exact  will  be  the  ellipse  : 
and  they  sliould  not  be  less  than  twelve.  From  each  of  these  divi- 
sions draw  lines  to  the  centre  o,  as  a  o,  b  o,  c  o.  Then,  from  a,  b,  c, 
&c.,  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  a  b,  and  from  the  corresponding 
points  in  the  inner  circle,  that  is,  from  the  points  marked  1,  2,  3,  &,c., 
draw  lines  parallel  to  a  b.  Draw  a  curve  through  the  points  where 
these  lines  intersect  each  other,  and  it  will  be  an  ellipse. 

In  the  diagram  to  which  this  demonstration  refers,  only  one  quar- 
ter of  the  ellipse  is  lettered,  but  the  process  described  in  relation  to 
that  must  be  carried  round  the  circles,  as  is  shown  in  the  dotted  and 
other  lines.  ^ 

Problem  X. 

To  describe  an  Ellipse  by  Means  of  a  Carpenter's  Square,  or  a 
piece  of  notched  Lath. 

Having  drawn  two  lines  to  represent  the  diameters  of  the  ellipse 
required,  fasten  the  square  so  that  the  internal  angle  or  meeting  of 
the  blade  and  stock  shall  be  at  the  centre  of  the  ellipse.  Then  take 
a  piece  of  wood  or  a  lath,  and  cut  it  to  the  length  of  half  the  longest 
diameter,  and  from  one  end  cut  out  a  piece  equal  to  half  the  shortest 
diameter,  and  there  will  then  be  a  piece  remaining  at  one  end  equal 
to  the  difference  of  the  half  of  the  two  diameters.  Place  this  project- 
ing piece  of  the  lath  in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  rest  against  the 
square,  on  the  edge  which  corresponds  to  the  two  diameters  ;  then, 
turning  it  round  horizontally,  the  two  ends  of  the  projection  will 
slide  along  the  two  internal  edges  of  the  square,  and  if  a  pencil  be 
fixed  at  the  other  end  of  the  lath,  it  will  describe  one  quarter  of  an 
ellipse.  The  square  must  then  be  moved  for  the  successive  quarters 
of  the  ellipse,  and  the  whole  figure  will  thus  be  easily  formed. 

This  method  of  forming  an  eUipse  is  a  good  substitute  for  the  usual 
plan,  and  the  figure  thus  pioduced  is  more  accurate  than  that  made 
by  passing  a  pencil  round  a  string  moving  upon  two  pins  or  nails 
fixed  in  the  foci,  for  the  string  is  apt  to  stretch,  and  the  pencil  cannot 
be  guided  with  the  accuracy  required. 

There  are  many  other  methods  of  drawing  ellipses,  or  more  prop- 
erly ovals,  but  we  can  only  notice  two  of  those  in  common  use. 

1.  By  ordinates,  or  lines  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  axis.  Having 
formed  the  two  diameters,  divide  the  axis,  or  larger  diameter,  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts,  and  erect  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
several  points.  Next  draw  a  semicircle,  and  divide  its  diameter  into 
the  like  number  of  equal  parts;  that  is,  if  the  larger  diameter  or  axis 
of  the  intended  ellipse  be  divided  into  twenty  equal   parts,  then  the 


118 


PRACTICAL   GEOBIETRY. 


semicircle  must  be  divided  into  the  like  number.  As  the  diameter  of 
the  semicircle  is  equal  to  the  sliorter  diameter  of  the  ellipse,  or  con- 
jugate axis,  perpendiculars  maybe  raised  from  these  divisions  of  the 
diameter,  or  the  semicircle,  till  they  meet  the  circumference  ;  and 
the  different  perpendiculars,  which  are  called  ordinates,  may  be 
erected  like  perpendiculars,  on  the  axis  of  ellipse.  Joining  the  sev- 
eral points  together,  the  ellipse  is  described ;  and  the  more  accurately 
the  perpendiculars  are  formed  the  more  exact  will  be  the  ellipse. 

2.  By  intersecting  arches.  Take  anj'  point  in  the  axis,  and  with  a 
i-adius  equal  to  the  distance  of  that  point  from  one  extremity  of  the 
axis,  and  with  one  of  the  foci  as  a  centre,  describe  an  arc  ;  then  with 
the  distance  of  the  assumed  point  in  the  axis  from  the  other  end  of  it, 
and  with  the  other  focus  as  a  centre,  describe  another  arc  intersect- 
ing 4he  former,  and  the  point  of  intersection  will  be  a  point  in  the 
ellipse.  By  assuming  any  number  of  points  in  the  axis,  any  number 
of  points  on  the  curve  may  be  found,  and  these  united  will  give  the 
ellipse.  This  process  is  founded  on  the  property  of  the  ellipse  ;  that 
if  any  two  lines  are  drawn  from  the  foci  to  any  point  in  the  curve,  the 
length  of  these  lines  added  together  will  be  a  constant  quantity,  that 
is,  always  the  same  in  the  same  ellipse. 


Problem  XT. 

To  find  the  Centre  and  the  two  Axes  of  an  Ellipse. 
Let  A  B  c  D  be  an  ellipse,  it  is  required  to  find  its  centi'e.      Draw 

Fig.  9. 


any  two  lines,  as  e  f  and  c  ii,  parallel  and  equal  to  each  other.  Bi- 
sect these  lines  as  in  the  points  i  and  k.  and  bisect  i  ic  as  in  l. 
From  L,  as  a  centre,  draw  a  circle  cutting  the  ellipse  in  four  ])oints, 
1,  2,  3,  4.  Now  L.  is  the  centre  of  the  ellipse.  But  join  the  points 
1,  3,  and  2,  4;  and  Insect  these  lines  as  in  m  and  n.  Draw  the  lino 
M  !«,  and  produce  it  to  A  and  b,  and  it  will  be  the  transverse  axis. 
Draw  c  n  through  l,  and  perpendicular  to  ab,  and  it  will  be  the 
conjugate  or  shorter  axis. 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


119 


Problem  XII. 

To  draw  aflat  Arch  by  the  intersection  of  Lines,  having  the  Open,' 
ing  and  Spring  or  Rise  given. 

Let  A  D  B  be  the  opening,  and  c  d  its  spring  or  rise.     In  the  mid- 

FiG.  10. 


die  of  A  B,  at  D,  erect  a  perpendicular  d  e,  equal  to  (wice  c  d,  its 
rise  ;  and  from  e  draw  e  a  and  e  b,  and  divide  a  e  and  b  e  into  any 
number  or  equal  parts,  as  o,  b,  c,  and  1,  2,  3.  Join  sa,  3  c,  2Zi,  and 
1  A,  and  it  will  form  the  arch  required. 

The  more  parts  a  e  and  b  e  are  divided  into,  the  greater  will  be 
the  accuracy  of  the  curve. 

Many  curves  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner,  according  to  the 
position  of  the  lines  a  e  and  e  b  ;  and  if  instead  of  two  lines  drawn 
from  A  and  b,  meeting  in  e,  a  perpendicular  be  erected  at  the  same 
points,  and  two  lines  be  then  drawn  from  the  ends  of  these  perpendic- 
ulars meeting  in  an  angle,  and  these  lines  be  divided  into  any  num- 
ber of  equal  parts,  the  points  of  the  adjacent  lines  may  be  joined,  and 
a  curve  will  be  formed  resembling  a  gothic  arch.  The  demonstration 
already  given  is  therefore  very  useful  to  the  workman,  as  he  may 
vary  the  form  of  the  curve  by  altering  the  position  of  the  lines,  either 
with  i-espect  to  the  angles  which  they  make  with  each  other,  or  their 
proportional  lengths. 

Problem  XIII. 

Tofl,nd  the  Form  or  Curvature  of  a  raking  Moulding  that  shall 
unite  correctly  with  a  level  one. 

Let  A  B  c  D  be  part  of  the  level  moulding,  which  we  will  here 

Fig.  II. 


B 


D 


suppose  to  be  an  ovolo,  or  quarter  round  ;  a  and  c,  the  points  where 
the  raking  moulding  takes  its  rise  on  the  angle  ;  f  c  G,  the  angle  the 


120 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETKY. 


raking  mouldino;  makes  with  the  horizontal  one.  Draw  c  f  at  the 
given  angle,  and  from  a  draw  a  e  parallel  to  it ;  continue  b  a  to  h, 
and  from  c  make  c  h  perpendicular  to  a  h.  Divide  c  h  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts,  as  1,2,  3,  and  draw  lines  parallel  to  h  a,  as  1 
a,  2  b,  3  c,-  and  then  in  any  part  of  the  raking  moulding,  as  i,  draw 
I  K  perpendicular  to  e  a,  and  divide  ik  into  the  same  number  of 
equal  parts  h  c  is  divided  into  ;  and  draw  1  a,  2  6,  3  f ,  parallel  to  e  a. 
Then  transfer  the  distances  la,2b,  S  c,  and  a  curve  drawn  through 
these  points  will  be  the  form  of  the  curve  required  for  the  raking 
moulding 

We  have  here  shown  the  method  to  he  employed  for  an  ovolo ;  but 
it  is  just  the  same  for  any  other  formed  moulding,  as  a  cavetto,  semi- 
recta,  &c.  It  may  be  worthy  remark,  that,  after  the  moulding  is 
worked,  and  the  mitre  is  cut  in  the  mitre-box  for  the  level  moulding, 
the  raking  moulding  must  be  cut,  cither  by  the  means  of  a  wedge 
formed  to  the  required  angle  of  the  rake,  or  a  box  made  to  correspond 
to  that  angle:  and  if  this  be  accurately  done,  the  mitre  will  be  true, 
and  the  moulding  in  all  its  members  correspond  to  the  level  moulding. 
The  plane  in  which  the  raking  moulding  is  situated  is  square  to  that 
of  the  level  one.  This  is  always  the  case  in  a  pediment,  the  mould- 
ings of  which  correspond  with  the  return. 

Problem  XIV, 

To  find  the  Form  or  Curvature  of  the  Return  in  an  open  or  broken 

Pediment. 

Let  A  B  c  be  the  angle  which  the  pediment  makes  with  the  cor- 

FiG.  12. 


nice,  and  let  the  form  and  size  of  the  moulding  he  as  in  the  last  pro- 
blem, and  as  shown  at  n  A  b  h.  From  d  drop  a  perpendicular  on 
c  n,  and  draw  n  e  perpendicular  to  n  c,  or  parallel  to  c  b  ;  and  let 
D  E  be  equal  to  E  i  (Fig.  11).  Then  from  e  draw  e  k,  parallel  to 
D  A,  and  divide  e  f  into  the  same  number  of  parts  as  i  k  (Fit;  11), 
at  1  a,  26,  3  c,  and  transfer  the  distances  1  a,  2  b,  3  c,  as  in  Fig.  11. 
Then  a  curve  line  drawn  through  the  points  a,  b,  c,  will  he  the  form 
of  the  return  for  the  innulding  of  the  open  pediment. 

The  mitre  for  the  return  is  cut  in  the  usual  manner,  hut  that  of 
the  pediment  is  cut  to  the  jnoper  angle  of  its  inclination,  as  in  the 
last  problem.  Infixing  the  mitre,  the  portion  e  d  t;  of  the  return 
mu^t  b(!  cutaway,  to  make  it  come  Hush  with  the  lop  of  tlie  pediment 
uioulditig. 


EPITOME   OF   MENSURATION 


AND 


INSTRUMENTAL    ARITHMETIC. 


11 


122  EPITOME    OF    MENSURATION. 

EPITOME    OF    MENSURATION. 


OF  THE    CIRCLE,   OYLINDEK,   SPHERE,    &C. 

1.  The  circle  contains  a  greater  area  than  any  other  plane  figure  bounded 
by  an  equal  perimeter  or  outline. 

2.  Tlie  areas  of  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their  diametersi 

3.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  being  1,  its  circumference  equals  3.1416. 

4.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  .31831  of  its  circumference. 

5.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  being  1,  its  area  equals  .7854. 

6.  The  square  root  of  the  area  of  a  circle,  multiplied  by  1.12837,  equals 
its  diameter. 

7.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  multiplied  by  .8862,  or  the  circumference 
multiplied  by  .2821,  equals  the  side  of  a  square  of  equal  area. 

8.  The  sum  of  the  squares  of  half  the  chord  and  versed  sine  divided  by 
the  versed  sine,  the  quotient  equals  the  diameter  of  corresponding  circle. 

9.  The  chord  of  the  whole  arc  of  a  circle  taken  from  eight  times  the  chord 
of  half  the  arc,  one-third  of  the  remainder  equals  the  length  of  the  arc  ;  or, 

10.  The  number  of  degrees  contained  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  multiplied  by 
Ihe  diameter  of  the  circle  and  by  .008727,  the  product  equals  the  length  of 
the  arc  in  equal  terms  of  unity. 

11.  The  length  of  the  arc  of  a  sectop  of  a  circle  multiplied  by  its  radius, 
equals  twice  the  area  of  the  sector. 

12.  The  area  of  the  segment  of  a  circle  equals  the  area  of  the  sector, 
minus  the  area  of  a  triangle  whose  vertex  is  the  centre,  and  whose  base 
equals  the  chord  of  the  segment,  or, 

13.  The  area  of  a  segment  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  height  of  the 
segment  by  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  and  multiplying  the  corresponding 
tabular  area  by  the  square  of  the  diamener. 

14.  The  sum  of  the  diameters  of  two  concentric  circles  multiplied  by 
their  difference  and  by  .7854,  equals  the  area  of  tlie  ring  or  space  contained 
between  them. 

15.  The  sum  of  the  thickness  and  infernal  diameter  of  a  cylindric  ring, 
multiplied  by  the  square  of  its  thickness  and  by  2.4C74,  equals  its  solidity. 

16.  The  circumference  of  a  cylinder,  multiplied  by  its  length  or  height, 
equals  its  convex  surface. 

17.  The  area  of  the  end  of  a  cylinder,  multiplied  by  its  length,  equals  its 
solid  contend. 

18.  The  area  of  the  internal  diameter  of  a  cylinder,  multiplied  by  its 
depth,  equals  its  cubical  capacity. 

19.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  cylinder  multiplied  by  its  length  and 
divided  by  ;iiiy  other  required  length,  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  equals 
Uic  diameter  of  the  other  cylinder  of  equal  contents  or  capacity. 


EPITOME    OF    MENSURATION.  123 

20.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  sphere,  multiplied  by  3.1416,  equals 
its  convex  surface. 

21.  The  culie  of  the  diameter  of  a  sphere,  multiplied  by  .5236,  equals  its 
solid  contents. 

22.  The  height  of  any  spherical  segment  or  zone  multiplied  by  the  diam- 
eter of  the  sphere  of  which  it  is  a  part,  and  by  3.1416,  equals  the  area  or 
convex  surface  of  the  segment;  or, 

23.  The  height  of  the  segment,  multiplied  by  the  circumference  of  the 
sphere  of  which  it  is  a  part,  equals  the  area. 

21.  Tiie  solidity  of  any  spiierical  segment  is  equal  to  three  times  the 
square  of  the  radius  of  ils  base,  plus  the  square  of  its  height,  and  multiplied 
by  Its  height  and  by  5236. 

25.  The  solidity  of  a  spherical  zone  equals  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the 
radii  of  its  two  ends,  and  one-third  the  square  of  its  height,  multiplied  by 

^  the  height,  and  by  1.5708. 

26.  The  capacity  of  a  cylinder,  1  foot  in  diameter  and  1  foot  in  length, 
equals  5  875  of  a  United  States  gallon. 

27.  The  capacity  of  a  cylinder  1  inch  in  diameter  and  1  foot  in  length, 
equals  .0408  of  a  United  States  gallon. 

28.  The  capacitj'  of  a  cylinder,  1  inch  in  diameter  and  1  inch  in  length, 
equals  .OO."^  of  a  United  States  gallon. 

29.  The  capacity  of  a  sphere  1  foot  in  diameter  equals  3.9156  United 
States  gillonSi 

30.  Tlie  capacity  of  a  sphere  1  inch  in  diameter  equals  .002165  of  a 
United  Slates  gallon  : — hence, 

31.  The  capacity  of  any  other  cylinder  in  United  States  gallons  is  ob- 
tained by  multiplying  the  square  of  its  diameter  by  its  length,  or  the  capaci- 
ty of  any  other  sphere  by  the  cube  of  its  diameter,  and  by  the  number  of 
United  States  gallons  contained  as  above  in  the  unity  of  its  measurement. 

OF   THE   SQUARE,    RECTANGLE,    CUBE,    &C. 

1.  The  side  of  a  square  equals  the  square  root  of  us  area. 

2.  The  area  of  a  square  equals  the  square  of  one  of  us  sides. 

3.  The  diagonal  of  a  square  equals  the  square  root  of  twice  the  square  of 
its  side. 

4.  The  side  of  a  square  is  equal  to  the  square  root  of  half  the  square  of 
its  diagonal. 

5.  The  side  of  a  square  equal  to  the  diagonal  of  a  given  square  contains 
double  the  area  of  the  given  square. 

6.  The  area  of  a  rectangle  equals  its  length  multiplied  by  its  breadth. 

7.  The  length  of  a  rectangle  equals  the  area  divided  by  the  breadth;  or, 
the  breadth  equals  the  area  divided  by  the  length. 

8.  The  side  or  end  of  a  rectangle  equals  the  square  root  of  the  sum  of  the 
diagonal  and  opposite  side  to  that  required,  multiplied  by  their  difference. 


124 


EPITOME   OF    MENSURATION. 


9.  The  diagonal  iu  a  rectangle  equals  the  square  root  of  Ine  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  base  and  perpendicular. 

10.  The  solidity  of  a  cube  equals  the  area  of  one  of  its  sides  multiplied 
by  the  length  or  breadth  of  one  of  its  sides. 

11.  The  length  or  breadth  of  a  side  of  a  cube  equals  the  cube  root  of  its 
solidity. 

12.  The  capacity  of  a  12-inch  cube  equals  7.4-784  United  States  gallons. 


SURFACES   AXD   SOLIDITIES    OF   THE   REGULAR   BODIES,   EACH   OF   WUOSE 
BOUNDARY    LINES    IS    1. 


No.  of  sides. 

Names. 

Surfaces. 

Solids. 

4 

6 

8 

12 

20 

Tetrahedron 

Hexahedron 

Octahedron 

Dodecahedron 

Icosahedron 

1.7321 
6. 

3.4641 

20.6458 

8.6603 

0.1179 
1. 

0.4714 
7.6631 
2.1817 

The  tabular  surface  multiplied  by  the  square  of  one  of  the  boundary  Jines 
equals  the  surface  required  ;  or, 

The  tabular  solidity  multiplied  by  the  cube  of  one  of  the  boundary  lines 
equals  the  solidity  required. 

OF   TRIANGLES,    POLYGONS,    &C. 

1.  The  complement  of  an  angle  is  its  defect  from  a  right  angle. 

2.  The  supplement  of  an  angle  is  its  defect  from  two  right  angles. 

3.  The  sine,  tangent,  and  secant  of  an  angle,  are  the  cosine,  cotangent, 
and  cosecant  of  the  complement  of  that  angle. 

4.  The  h^-potenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  being  made  radii,  its  sides 
become  the  sines  of  the  opposite  angles,  or  the  cosines  of  the  adjacent  angles. 

5.  The  three  angles  of  every  triangle  are  equal  to  two  right  angles : 
hence  the  oblique  angles  of  a  right-angled  triangle  arc  eacli  others  comple- 
ments. 

6.  The  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two  given  sides  oi  a  right-angled  triap- 
/>)e  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the  h^'potcnusc. 

7.  The  difference  between  the  squares  of  the  hypotenuse  and  given  side 
of  a  righl-ajigled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  .square  of  the  reiiuircd  side. 

8.  The  area  of  a  triangle  equals  half  the  product  of  the  base  multiplied 
by  the  perpendicular  height ;  or, 

9.  The  area  of  a  triangle  equals  half  the  productof  tiie  two  sides  and  the 
natural  sine  of  the  contained  angle. 

10.  The  side  of  any  regular  polygon  multiplied  by  its  npoihcm  or  perpen- 
dicular^ and  by  the  uumbcr  of  its  sides,  e(juals  twice  the  area. 


EPITOME    OF  MENSITKATION. 


12d 


TABLE  OF  THE  ARE^iS   OF  REGULAR  POLYGONS  EACH  OF  WHOSE 
SIDES   IS   UNITY. 


Name  of 

No    ofi  Apotheni  or 

Area  when 

Interior 

Central 

Polygon. 

Sides    Perpend'lar. 

Side  IS  Limy 

Angle. 

Angle. 

Triangle 

3 

0.2887 

0.4330 

60°  0' 

120°  0' 

Square 

4 

0.5 

1, 

90.   0 

90     0 

Pentagon 

5 

0.6882 

1.7205 

108     0 

72     0 

Hexagon 

6 

0.8660 

2.5981 

120     0 

60     0 

Heptagon 

7 

1.0386 

3.6339 

128  34f 

51  25^ 

Octagon 

8 

1.2071 

4.8284 

135     0 

45     0 

Nonagon 

9 

].3737 

6.1818 

140     0 

40     0 

Decagon 

10 

1.5388 

7.6942 

144     0 

36     0 

Undecagon 

11 

1.7028 

9.3656 

147   16^4^ 

32  43/t 

Dodecagon 

12 

1.8660 

11.1962 

150     0 

30     0 

The  tabular  area  of  the  corresponding  polygon  multiplied  by  the  square 
of  the  side  of  the  given  polygon  equals  the  area  of  the  given  polygon. 

OF    ELLIPSES,    CONES,    FRUSTUMS,    &C. 

1.  The  square  root  of  half  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two  diameters  of 
an  ellipse  multiplied  by  3.1-116  equals  its  circumference. 

2.  The  product  of  the  two  axes  of  an  ellipse  multiplied  by  .7854  equals 
its  area. 

3.  The  curve  surface  of  a  cone  is  equal  to  half  the  product  of  the  circum- 
ference of  its  base  multiplied  by  its  slant  side,  to  which,  if  the  area  of  the 
base  be  added,  the  sum  is  the  whole  surface. 

4.  The  solidity  of  a  cone  equals  one  third  of  the  product  of  its  base  mul- 
tiplied by  its  altitude  or  height. 

5.  The  squares  of  the  diameters  of  the  two  ends  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone 
added  to  the  product  of  the  two  diameters,  and  that  sum  multiplied  by  its 
height  and  by  .2618,  equals  its  solidity. 


INSTRUMENTAL     ARITHMETIC, 

OR   UTILITY   OF   THE   SLIDE   RULE. 

The  slide  rule  is  an  instrument  by  which  the  greater  portion  of  operations 
in  arithmetic  and  mensuration  may  be  advantageously  performed,  provided 
the  lines  of  division  and  gauge- points  be  made  properly  correct,  and  their 
several  values  familiarly  understood. 

The  lines  of  division  are  distinguished  by  the  letters  a  B  c  D  j  A  b  and  c 
being  each  divided  alike,  and  containing  what  is  termed  a  double  radius, 
11* 


126  UTILITY    OF  THE    SLIDE    RULE. 

or  double  series  of  logarilhmic  numbers,  each  scries  being  supposed  to  be 
divided  into  1000  equal  parts,  and  distributed  along  the  radius  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner : 

From  1  to  2  contains  301  of  those  parts,  being  the  log.  of  2. 

„  3_ 


n 

3 

477 

it 

4 

602 

it 

5 

699 

u 

6 

778 

tt 

7 

845 

t( 

8 

003 

ti 

9 

934 

il 

II 


/I 

It 


4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 


1000  being  the  whole  number. 


The  line  D  on  the  improved  rules  consists  of  only  a  single  radius ;  and 
although  of  larger  radius,  the  logarilhmic  series  is  the  same,  and  disposed 
of  along  the  line  in  a  similar  proportion,  form.ing  exactlj'  a  line  of  square 
roots  to  the  numbers  on  the  lines  b  c. 

NUMERATION. 

Numeration  teaches  us  to  estimate  or  propCrly  value  the  numbers  and 
divisions  on  the  rule  in  an  arithmetical  form. 

Their  values  are  all  entirely  governed  by  the  value  set  upon  the  first 
figure,  and  being  decimally  reckoned,  advance  tenfold  from  the  commence- 
ment to  the  termination  of  each  radius :  thus,  suppose  1  at  the  joint  be  one, 
the  1  in  the  middle  of  the  rule  is  ten,  and  1  at  the  end,  one  hundred :  again, 
suppose  1  at  the  joint  ten,  1  in  the  middle  is  100,  and  1  or  10  al  the  end  is 
1000,  &.C.,  the  intermediate  divisions  on  which  complete  the  whole  system 
ofits  notation. 

TO   MULTIPLY    NUMBERS   BY   THE  RULE. 

Set  1  on  B  opposite  to  the  multiplier  on  A  ;  and  against  the  number  to  be 
multiplied  on  b  is  the  product  on  a. 

Multiply  0  by  4. 

Set  1  on  B  to  4  on  A  ;  and  against  6  on  B  is  24  on  A. 

The  slide  thus  set,  against  7  on  b  is  28  on  a. 


&c. 


TO  DIVIDE  NUMBERS   UPON   TIIE  RULE. 

Set  the  divisor  on  b  to  1  on  a  ;  and  against  the  number  to  be  divided  on 
B  is  the  quotient  on  A. 
Divide  63  by  3. 

Set  3  on  B  to  1  on  A  3  and  against  63  on  b  is  21  on  a. 


8 

32 

9 

36 

10 

40 

12 

48 

15 

60 

23 

100 

UTILITY    OF    THE    SLIDE    RULE.  127 

PROPORTION,   OR   RULE   OF   TUREE   DIRECT 

Rule. — Set  the  first  term  on  b  to  the  second  on  a  5  and  against  the  third 
upon  B  is  the  fourth  upon  a. 

1.  If  4  yards  of  cloth  cost  38  cents,  what  will  30  yards  cost  at  the  same 
rate? 

Set  4  on  B  to  38  on  A ;  and  against  30  on  B  is  285  cents  on  A. 

2.  Suppose  I  pay  31  dollars  50  cents  for  3  cwt,  of  copper,  at  what  rate  is 
that  per  ton  ?     I  ton  ==  20  cwt. 

Set  3  upon  b  to  31.5  upon  a  ;  and  against  20  upon  b  is  210  upon  A.  • 

RULE   OF   THREE   INVERSE. 

Rule. — Invert  the  slide,  and  the  operation  is  the  same  as  direct  proper- 
tion. 

1.  I  know  that  six  men  are  capable  of  performing  a  certain  given  por- 
tion of  work  in  eight  days,  but  I  want  the  same  performed  in  three  j  how 
many  men  must  there  be  employed  ? 

Set  6  upon  c  to  8  upon  a  ;  and  against  3  upon  c  is  16  upon  a. 

2.  The  lever  of  a  safety-valve  is  20  inches  in  length,  and  5  inches  between 
the  fixed  end  and  centre  of  the  valve;  what  weight  must  there  be  placed  on 
the  end  of  the  lever  to  equipoise  a  force  or  pressure  of  40  lbs.  tending  to 
raise  the  valve  ? 

Set  5  upon  c  to  40  upon  a  ;  and  against  20  upon  c  is  10  upon  A. 

3.  If  8|  yards  of  cloth,  1.^  yard  in  width,  be  a  sufficient  quantity,  how 
much  will  be  required  of  that  which  is  only  7-8ths  in  width,  to  effect  the 
same  purpose  ? 

Set  1.5  upon  c  to  8.75  upon  a  ;  and  against  .875  upon  c  is  15  yards  upon  a. 

SQUARE   AND   CUBE   ROOTS   OF   NUMBERS. 

On  the  engineer's  rule,  when  the  lines  c  and  d  are  equal  at  both  ends,  c 
is  a  table  of  squares,  and  D  a  table  of  roots,  as 

Squares  1     4    9     16    25     36    49     64    81  on  c. 
Roots      12    3     4      ar     6      7      8      9    on  d. 

To  find  the  geometrical  mean  proportion  between  two  numbers. 

Set  one  of  the  numbers  upon  c  to  the  same  number  upon  D  ;  and  against 
the  other  number  upon  c  is  the  mean  number  or  side  of  an  equal  square 
upon  D. 

Required  the  mean  proportion  between  20  and  45. 

Set  20  upon  c  to  20  upon  d  ;  and  against  45  upon  c  is  30  upon  D. 

To  cube  any  number,  set  the  number  upon  c  to  1  or  10  upon  D ;  and 
against  the  same  number  up  mi  d  is  the  cube  number  upon  c. 


128  TTTIXITY  OF    THE    SLIDE    RULE. 

Required  the  cube  of  4. 

Set  4  upon  c  to  1  or  10  upon  D  ;  and  against  4  upon  D  is  64  upon  c. 

To  extract  the  cube  root  of  any  number,  invert  the  slide,  aud  set  the 
number  upon  b  to  1  or  10  upon  d  ;  and  where  two  numbers  of  equal  value 
coincide  on  the  lines  B  D,  is  the  root  of  the  given  number. 

Required  the  cube  root  of  64. 
Set  64  upon  b  to  1  or  10  upon  D ;  and  against  4  upon  B  is  4  upon  D,  or  root 

of  the  given  number. 

On  *hc  common  rule,  when  1  in  the  middle  of  the  line  c  is  set  opposite  to 
10  on  D,  then  c  is  a  table  of  squares,  and  d  a  table  of  roots. 

To  cube  any  number  by  this  rule,  set  the  number  upon  c  to  10  upon  D- 
and  agamst  the  same  number  upon  d  is  the  cube  upon  c. 

MENSURATION    OF   SUEFACE. 

1.   Squares,  Rectangles,  ^c. 

Rur.E. — When  the  length  is  given  in  feet  and  the  breadth  in  inches,  set 
tlie  breadth  on  B  to  12  on  a  ;  and  against  the  length  on  A  is  the  content  in 
square  feet  on  B. 

If  the  dimensions  are  all  inches,  set  the  breadth  on  B  to  144  upon  A  5  and 
against  the  length  upon  A  is  the  number  of  square  feet  on  B. 

Re()uircd  the  content  of  a  board  15  inches  broad  and  14  feet  long. 
Set  15  upon  b  to  12  ujjon  a  ;  and  against  14  upon  a  is  17.5  square  feet  on  B. 

2.  Circles,  Polygons,  S(c. 

Rule. — Set  .7854  upon  c  to  1  or  10  upon  d  ;  then  will  the  lines  c  and  D 
be  a  table  of  areas  and  diameters. 

Areas  3.14  7.06  12.5G  19.63  28.27  38.48  50.26  63.61  upon  c; 
Diam.  2345678  9        upon  d. 

In  the  common  rule,  set  .7854  on  c  to  10  on  D  j  then  c  is  a  line  or  table 
of  areas,  and  D  of  diameters,  as  before. 

Sol  7  upon  li  to  22  upon  A  ;  then  B  and  a  form  or  become  a  table  of  di- 
ameters and  circumferences  of  circles. 

Cir.    3.14  6  28  9.42  12.56  15.7  18.85  22  25.13  28.27  upon  a. 
Dia.    123         4         56         78         9        upon  b. 
Poti/gons  from  3   to  12  sides. — Set  the  gauge-point  upon  c  to  1  or  10 
upon  u  ;  and  against  the  length  of  one  side  upon  d  is  the  area  uponc. 
Sides  3      5     6     7       8       9        10      II      12 

Gauge-points     .433  1.7  2.G  3.G3  4.82  6.18  7.69  9.37  11.17 
Required  the  area  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  each  side  12  inches  in  length. 

Scri  .433  upon  c  to  1  upon  D  3  and  against  12  upon  D  arc  62.5  square 
Inches  upon  c. 


UTILITY  OF    THE    SLIDE    RULE. 


129 


TABLE   OF   GAUGE-POINTS   FOR   THE   ENGINEER'S   RULE. 


Names 


Cubic  inches 
Cubic  feet 
Imp.  Gallons 
Water  in  lbs. 
Gold 
Silver 
Mercury 
Brass  " 

Copper  " 
Lead  " 

Wrot  iron  " 
Cast  iron  ♦' 
Tin  " 

Steel  " 

Coal  " 

Marble  " 
Freestone  " 


F,  F,V.  I  F,  1,1.  I  1,1,  I.  i!   F,  I 


I,  I. 


I. 


578 

1 

163 

16 
814 

15 
118 
193 

18 
141 
207 
222 
219 
202 
127 
591 
632 


83 
144 
231 

23 

1175 

216 

169 

177 

26 
203 
297 

32 
315 
292 
183 

85 
915 


728  ! 

106 

1273 

1 

1833 

22 

277  ! 

294 

353 

276  . 

293 

352 

141  1 

149 

178 

261  1 

276 

334 

203 

216 

258 

333 

354 

424 

319 

331 

397 

243 

258 

31 

357 

338 

453 

384 

407 

489 

378  i 

401 

481 

352  i 

372 

448 

22  i 

33 

23 

102  : 

116 

13 

11 

1162 

14 

105 
121 
306 
305 
155 
286 
225 
369 
345 
27 
394  I 
424 
419 
385 
242 
113 
141 


121 
33 

529 
528 
269 
5 
389 
637 
596 
465 
682 
733 
728 
671 

42 
195 

21 


FOR   THE   COMMON   SLIDE   RULE. 


Names. 

F,  F,  F. 

F,  I,  I. 

1.1,1. 

i   F,I. 

1,1. 

F. 

r 

Cubic  inches 

36 

518 

624 

660 

799  i 

625 

113 

Cubic  feel 

625 

9 

108 

114 

138 

119 

206 

Water  in  lbs. 

10 

144 

174 

184 

22 

191 

329 

Gold 

507 

735 

88 

96 

118 

939 

ISO 

Silver    " 

938 

136 

157 

173 

208 

173 

354 

Mercury  " 

738 

122 

127 

[  132 

162 

141 

242 

Brass     " 

12 

174 

207 

;  221 

265 

23 

397 

Copper   " 

112 

163 

196 

'  207 

247 

214 

371 

Lead 

880 

126 

152 

!  162 

194 

169 

289 

Wrot  iron  " 

129 

186 

222 

235 

283 

247 

423 

Cast  iron  " 

139 

2 

241 

254 

3*4 

,  265 

458 

Tin 

137 

135 

235 

25 

300 

i  261 

454 

Steel     " 

1.36 

183 

22 

233 

278 

239 

418 

Coal     " 

795 

114 

1.38 

146 

176 

!  151 

252 

Marble   " 

370 

53 

637 

'     725 

81 

72 

121 

Freestone  " 

394 

57 

69 

!  728 

873 

755 

132 

JIENSURATION    OF   SOLIDITY   AND    CAPACITY. 

General  Rule. — Set  the  length  upon  u  to  the  gauge  point  upon  a  ;  and 
against  the  side  of  the  square,  or  diameter  on  D,  are  the  cubic  contents,  or 
weight  in  lbs.  on  c. 

1.  Required  the  cubic  contents  of  a  tree  30  feet  in  length,  and  10  inches 
quarter  girt. 

Set  30  upon  b  to  144  (the  gauge-point)  upon  a  ;  and  against  10  upon  u  is 

20.75  feet  upon  c. 


130  UTILITY    OF    THE    SLIDE    RULE. 

2.  In  a  cylinder  9  inches  in  length,  and  7  inches  diameter,  liow  many  cubic 
inches  ? 

Set  9  upon  B  to  1273  (the  gauge-point)  upon  a  ;  and  against  7  on  d  is  346 

inclies  on  c. 

3.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  bar  of  cast  iron  3  in.  scjuare,  and  6  ft.  long? 
Set  6  upon  B  to  32  (the  gauge-point)  upon  a  ;  and  against  3  upon  D  is  168 

pounds  upon  Ci 
By  the  common  nde. 

4.  Required  the  weight  of  a  cylinder  of  wrought  iron  10  inches  long,  and 
5J  diameter. 

Set  10  upon  B  to  283  (the  gau2;-e-poinl)  upon  a;  and  against  5^  upon  D  is 

66.65  pounds  on  c. 

5.  ^V^lat  is  the  weight  of  a  dry  rope  23  yards  long,  and  4  inches  circum- 
ference 1 

Set  25  upon  e  to  47  (the  gauge-point)  upon  a  j  and  against  4  on  d  is  53  16 

pounds  on  c. 

6.  What  is  tlie  weight  of  a  short-linked  chain  30  yards  in  length,  and 
6-16ths  of  an  inch  in  diameter? 

Set  30  upon  b  to  52  (the  gauge-point)  upon  A  ;  and  against  6  on  D  is  129.5 

pounds  on  c. 

POWER   OF   STEAM    EXGIXES. 

Condensing  Engines. — Rule.  Set  3.5  on  c  to  10  on  D  ;  then  D  is  a  line 
of  diameters  for  cylinders,  and  c  the  corresponding  number  of  horses' 
power ;  thus, 

H.  Pr.  3iJ  4      5    G      8     10  12     IG     20  25     30    40    50     on  c. 

C.  D.  10  in.    10|  12  13.i  15^  17  18|  21^  24  2G|  29^  33|  37|  on  D. 

The  same  is  effected  on  the  common  rule  by  setting  5  on  c  to  12  on  d. 

Non-condensing  Engines. — Rule.  Set  the  pres.>-ure  of  steam  in  pounds 
per  square  inch  on  B  to  4  upon  a  ;  and  against  the  cylinder's  diameter  on  D 
is  the  number  of  horses'  power  upon  c. 

Required  the  power  of  an  engine,  when  the  cylinder  is  20  inches  diameter 
and  steam  30  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Set  30  on  B  to  4  on  A  ;  and  against  20  on  D  is  30  horses'  power  on  c. 

The  same  is  effected  on  the  common  rule  by  setting  the  force  of  the  steam 
on  B  to  250  on  a. 

OF   ENGINE   BOIIERS. 

IIow  many  .superficial  feet  arc  contained  in  a  boiler  23  feet  in  length  and 
6^  feet  in  width  ? 
Set  1  on  B  to  23  on  A  ;  and  against  5.5  upon  B  is  126.5  square  feet  upon  A. 

If  5  square  feet  of  boiler  surface  be  sufficient  for  each  horse-power,  how 
many  horses'  power  of  engine  is  the  boiler  equal  to  ? 

Set  5  upon  B  to  12G.ti  upon  A  ;  and  against  1  upon  fi  is  Z5.5  upon  A. 


RULES   AND    TABLES 


FOE 


AETIFICERS  AND   ENGINEERS, 


132  MEASUREMENT    OF    BRICKLAYERS*    WORK. 


ARTIFICERS'    RULES    AND    TABLES 

For  Computing  the  Work  of  Bricklayers,  Well  Dig- 
gers, Masons,  Carpenters  and  Joiners,  Slaters,  Plas- 
terers, Painters,  Glaziers,    Pavers,  and    Plumbers. 

MEASUREMENT    OF    BRICKLAYERS'   WORK. 

Brickwork  is  estimated  at  the  rate  of  a  number  of  bricks  in  thickness,  estimat- 
ing a  brick  at  4  inches  thick.  The  dimensions  of  a  building  are  usually  taken 
by  measuring  half  round  on  the  outside,  and  half  round  on  the  inside  ;  the  sum 
of  these  two  gives  the  compass  of  the  wall, — to  be  multiplied  by  the  height,  for 
the  content  of  the  materials.  Chimneys  are  by  some  measured  as  if  they  were 
solid,  deducting  only  the  vacuity  from  the  hearth  to  the  mantel,  on  account  of  the 
trouble  of  them.  And  by  others  they  are  girt  or  measured  round  for  their  breadth, 
and  the  height  of  the  story  is  their  height,  taking  the  depth  of  the  jambs  for  their 
thickness.  And  in  this  case,  no  deduction  is  made  for  the  vacuity  from  the  floor 
to  tlie  mantel- tree,  because  of  the  gathering  of  the  breast  and  wings,  to  make  room 
for  the  hearth  in  the  next  story.  To  measure  the  chimney  shafts,  which  appear 
above  the  building,  gird  them  about  with  aline  for  the  breadth,  to  multiply  by 
their  height.  Anil  account  their  thickness  half  a  brick  more  than  it  really  is,  in 
consideration  of  the  plastering  and  scaflolding.  All  windows,  doors,  &c.,  are  to 
be  deducted  out  of  the  contents  of  the  walls  in  which  they  are  placed.  But  tliis 
deduction  is  made  only  with  regard  to  materials  ;  for  the  whole  measure  is  taken 
for  workmanship,  and  that  all  outside  measure  too,  namely,  measuring  quite 
round  the  outside  of  the  building,  being  in  consideration  of  the  trouble  of  the 
returns  or  angles.  There  are  also  some  other  allowances,  such  as  double  meas- 
ure for  feathered  gable  ends,  &c. 

Example. — The  end  wall  of  a  house  is  28  feet  long,  and  37  feet  high  to  the 
eaves :  15  feel  high  is  four  bricks  or  16  inches  thick,  oilier  13  feel  is  three  bricks 
or  12  inches  thick,  and  the  remaining  11)  feet  is  two  bricks  or  8  inches  thick; 
above  which  is  a  triangular  gable  12  feet  high  and  one  brick  or  4  inches  in 
thickness.    What  number  of  bricks  are  there  in  the  said  wall?    A>is.  25,620. 

tliiclincss. 

28  X  15  =  420  X  '1  =  Ifisn  contents  of  Isl  story. 
28  X  12  =  3.30  X  3  =  1003        "         "   2d     " 
23X10  =  260x2=    5G0        "         "   3d     " 
12 -T- 2=    6X28  =  108X1=    1(53       "        "gable. 

34 10   square  feet  area  of  whole  wall. 
7^  bricks  to  square  foot. 


23,912        By  the  table 

1,708               3000  suprfi.  ft.  =  22,500  bricks, 

400    "          "  =    3,000       " 

Answer,— 

25,620  bricks.      10    "         "  =        75      " 

6    "          "  =        45      " 

3416    "         "  =  25,620  bricks 

^    Table  by  ii'hich  to  ascertain  the  number  of  Bricks  necessary  to  construct  any 
Piece  of  Building,  from  afour-inch  Wall  to  ttvoity-four  inches  in  Thickness. 

The  utility  of  the  Table  (on  next  page)  can  be  seen  by  the  following  Ex- 
ample.    Required  the  number  of  bricks  to  build  a  wall  of  12  inches  thickness, 
nnu  containing  an  area  of  0,437  square  feci. 
Square  feet  1000  22,.'')00  bricks— See  table. 

X  0  6 


6000  =  135  000                                 NoTK.  —  7J  bricks. 

400  =  9,000                      equal  one  superficial  loot. 

30  =  075 

7=  158 


6,437=    144,833  bricks. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  BRICKWORK,  WELLS  t  CISTERNS.    133 


Superficial 

Numtel-  of  B>-icks  lo  Thickness  of 

Wall. 

4-inch 

8inch. 

12-inch. 

16-lnch- 

20-inch. 

1   24-inch. 

1 

8 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

J  80 

5 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7 

53 

105 

156 

210 

263 

315 

8 

60 

120 

180 

240 

300 

3(10 

9 

68 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1125 

1.330 

40 

300 

600 

900 

J  200 

1500 

ISdO 

50 

375 

750 

1125 

1500 

1875 

2250 

60 

450 

900 

1350 

1801) 

2250 

2700 

70 

525 

1050 

1575 

2100 

2625 

3150 

SO 

600 

1200 

ie-00 

2400 

3000 

3600 

90 

675 

1350 

2025 

2700 

a375 

4050 

100 

750 

1500 

2250 

3000 

3750 

4500 

200 

1500 

3000 

4500 

6000 

7500 

9000 

300 

2250 

4500 

6750 

9000 

11250 

13500 

400 

3000 

6000 

9000 

12000 

15000 

160(10 

5(10 

3750 

7500 

11250 

15000 

18750 

22500 

600 

4500 

9000 

13500 

l&OOO 

22500 

27000 

700 

5250 

10500 

15750 

21000 

26250 

31500 

800 

6000 

12000 

18000 

24000 

30000 

36000 

900 

6750 

13500 

20250 

27000 

33750 

40500 

1000 

7500 

15000 

22500 

30000 

37500 

45000 

MEASUREMENT   OF    WELLS    AND    CISTERNS. 

There  are  two  methods  of  estimating  the  value  of  excavating.  It  may  bo 
done  by  allowing  so  much  a  day  for  every  man's  work,  or  so  much  per  cubic 
foot,  or  yard,  for  all  that  is  excavated. 

Well  Di§^ng.  —  Suppose  a  Well  is  40  feet  deep,  and  5  feet  in  diameter,, 
required  the  number  of  cubic  feet,  or  yards? 

5  X  5  =  25  X  .7354  =  19.635  X  40  =  785.4  cubic  feet. 
Suppose  a  well  .o  be  4  feet  9  inches  diameter,  and  ]6i  feet  from  the  bottom  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  ;  how  many  gallons  are  therein  coniained  ? 
4-752  X  16.5  X  5.875  =  2187.152  gallons. 
Again,  suppose  the  well's  diameter  the  same,  and  its  entire  depth  35  feet;  re- 
quired the  quantity  in  cubic  yards  of  material  excavated  in  its  formation. 
4.752  X  35  X  -02909  =  22.9?2  cubic  yards. 
A  cylindrical  piece  of  lead  is  required  7^  inches  diameter,  and  1G8  lbs.  ia 
weight ;  what  must  be  its  length  in  inches  ? 

7.52  X  .3223  =  18,  and  163  -^  18  =  9.3  inches. 
Digging  for  Foundations,  If c. —  To  find  the  cubical  quantity  in   a  trench,  or 
an  excavated  area,  the  lengih,  width,  and  depth  must  be  multiplied  togellier. 
These   are  usually  given  in  feet,  and  therefore,  to  reduce  the  amount  into  cubic 
yards  it  must  be  divided  by  27. 

Suppose  a  trench  is  40  feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  and  3  feet  deep,  required  the 
number  of  cubic  feet,  or  yards? 

40  X3  =  120x3=360feet^27  =  13j  yards. 
24  cubic  feet  of  sand,  17  ditto  clay,  18  ditto  earth,  equal  one  ton. 
1  cubic  yard  of  earth  or  gravel,   before  digging,  will  occupy  about  IJ  cubio 
yards  when  dug. 

31EASUREMENT    OF    MASONS'    WORK. 

To  masonry  belong  all  sorts  of  stone-^vork  ;  and  the  measure  made  use  of  is 
a  foot,  either  superficial  or  solid. 
Walls,  columns,  blocks  of  stone  or  marble,  &c.,  are  measured  by  the  cubio 

12 


134    MEASUREMEXT    OF    MASONS'  &  CARPENTEES'   WORK. 

foot;  and  pavements,  slabs,  chimney-pieces,  &c.,  by  the  superficial  or  square 
foot.  Cubic  or  solid  measure  is  used  lor  ihe  materials,  and  square  measure  for 
the  workmanship.  In  the  solid  measure,  the  true  lenglli,  breadih  and  liuckness, 
are  taken,  and  multiplied  continually  together.  In  the  superficial,  there  must  be 
taken  the  leiigih  and  breadih  ol  every  part  of  the  projection,  which  is  seen  with- 
out the  general  upright  face  of  the  building. 

E.XAMPLE.  —  In  a  chimney-piece,  suppose  the  length  of  the  mantel  and  slab 
each  4  feet  6  inches  ;  breadth  of  both  together  3  feel  2  inches  ;  lenijlh  of  each 
jamb  4  feet  4  inches ;  breadth  of  both  together  1  fool  9  inches.  Required  ihe 
superficial  content.  —  Ans.  21  feel  10  inches. 

4  ft.  6  in.  X  3  ft.  2  in.  =  34  ft.  3  in.  )  „,  .^,  ,„  .     .    , 
4"  4  "    xl"!)"    =7"    7  >'  {21  feet  10  inches. 

Rubble  Walls  (unhewn  stone)  are  commonly  measured  by  the  perch, which  is 
16J  feel  long,  1  loot  deep,  and  IJ  fool  thick,  equivalent  to  'ii^  cubic  feet.  25  cu- 
bic feel  is  sometimes  allowed  to  ihe  perch,  in  measuring  stone  before  it  is  laid,  and 
22  after  it  is  laid  in  the  wall.  This  species  of  work  is  of  two  kinds,  coursed 
and  uncoursed  ;  in  the  former  the  stones  are  gauged  and  dressed  by  the  hammer, 
and  the  masonry  laid  in  horizontal  courses,  but  not  necessarily  confined  to  the 
same  height.  The  uncoursed  rubble  wall  is  formed  by  laying  the  stones  in  the 
wall  as  they  come  to  hand,  without  any  previous  gauging  or  working. 

27  cubic  feet  of  mortar  require  for  its  preparation,  9  bushels  of  lime  and  1 
cubic  foot  of  sand. 

Lime  and  sand  lessen  about  one-third  in  bulk  when  made  into  mortar  ;  like- 
wise cement  and  sand. 

Lime,  or  cement  and  sand,  to  make  moriar,  require  as  much  water  as  is  equal 
to  one-third  ot  their  bulk. 

All  sandstones  ought  to  be  placed  on  their  natural  beds ;  from  inattention  to 
this  circuinsiance,  the  slones  often  split  off  at  the  joints,  and  the  position  of  the 
lamina  much  sooner  admits  of  ihe  destructive  action  of  air  and  water. 

The  heaviest  slones  are  most  suited  for  docks  and  harbors,  breakwaters  to 
bridges,  &c. 

Granite  is  the  most  durable  species  of  stone  yet  known  for  the  purposes  of 
building.  It  varies  in  weight  according  to  quality  ;  the  heaviest  is  the  most 
durable. 

MEASUREMENT    OF    CARPENTERS'  AND  JOINERS'    WORK. 

To  this  branch  belongs  all  the  wood  work  of  a  house,  such  as  flooring,  parli- 
lioning,  roofing,  &c.  Large  and  plain  articles  are  usually  measured  by  the  square 
foot  or  yard,  &.C.,  but  enriched  mouldings,  and  some  other  articles,  are  oltcn  esti- 
mated by  running  or  lineal  measures,  and  some  things  are  rated  by  the  piece, 

All  joints,  girders,  and  in  fact  all  the  pans  of  naked  flooring,  are  measured  by 
the  cube,  and  their  quantities  are  found  by  multiplying  the  length  by  ilie  breadth, 
and  the  product  by  the  depth.  The  same  rule  appplies  to  the  measurement  of 
all  the  timbers  of  a  roof,  and  also  the  framed  limbers  used  in  the  construction  of 
partitions. 

Flooring,  that  is  to  say,  the  boards  which  cover  the  naked  flooring,  is  meas- 
ured l)y  the  square.  Tlie  dimensions  are  taken  from  wall  to  wall,  and  the  pro- 
duct IS  divided  by  100,  which  gives  the  number  of  squares  ;  but  deductions  must 
be  made  for  staircases  and  chimneys. 

In  measuring  of  joists,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  only  one  of  their  dimensions 
IS  the  same  willi  that  of  ihe  floor  ;  fo  the  other  exceeds  the  length  of  il  e  nmin  by 
the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  oiie-il  ird  of  the  same,  because  each  enc  is  let  iiilu 
the  wall  about  two-thirds  of  its  thickness. 

No  deductions  are  made  for  hearths,  on  account  of  the  additional  trouble  and 
waste  of  materials. 

Partitions  are  measured  from  wall  to  wall  for  one  dimension,  and  from  floor  to 
floor,  as  far  as  they  extend,  forihe  other. 

No  deduction  is  made  lor  door- ways,  on  account  of  the  trouble  of  frnming  Ihem. 

In  mi-.isuiinp  ol"  joiners'  work,  the  string  is  made  to  ply  close  to  every  part  of 
the  Work  over  which  it  pusses. 

The  measure  for  centtrine  for  CKi.t.Ans  is  fcaind  by  iniiking  a  string  puss  over 
ttie  surface  of  the  arch  for  the  breadth,  and  taking  ihe  length  of  the  cellar  fof 


MEASUEEMENT    OF    CARPENTERS*  &  JOINERS'  WORK.    135 

the  length  ;  but  in  groin  centering,  it  is  usual  to  allow  double  measure,  on  ac- 
count of  their  extraordinary  trouble. 

In  roofing,  the  length  of  the  house  in  the  inside,  together  with  two-thirds  of  the 
thickness  of  one  gable,  is  to  be  considered  as  the  length  ,  and  the  breadth  is  equal 
to  double  the  length  of  a  string  which  is  stretched  from  the  ridge  down  the  rafter, 
and  along  the  eaves-board,  till  it  meets  with  the  top  of  the  wall. 

For  staircases,  take  the  breadth  of  all  the  steps,  by  making  a  line  ply  close 
overihem,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  and  multiply  the  length  of  this  line  by  the 
length  of  a  step,  for  the  whole  area.—  By  the  length  of  a  step  is  meant  the  length 
of  the  front  and  the  returns  at  the  two  ends  ;  and  by  the  breadth,  is  to  be  under- 
stood the  girth  of  its  two  outer  surfaces,  or  the  tread  and  riser. 

For  the  baliisirade^  take  \he  whole  length  of  the  upper  part  of  the  handrail, 
and  girt  over  its  end  till  it  meet  the  top  of  the  newel  post,  lor  the  length  ;  and 
twice  the  length  ot  the  baluster  upon  the  landing,  with  the  girth  of  the  hand- 
rail for  the  breadth. 

For  wainscoiing,  tnke  the  compass  of  the  room  for  the  length  ;  and  the  height 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  making  the  string  ply  close  into  all  the  mouldings 
fcr  the  breadth.  Out  of  this  must  be  made  deductions  for  windows,  doors,  and 
chimneys,  &:c.,  but  workmanship  is  counted  for  the  whole,  on  acco'unt  of  the 
extraordinary  trouble. 

For  doors,  it  is  usual  to  allow  for  their  thickness,  by  adding  it  to  both  dimen- 
sions of  length  and  breadth,  and  then  to  multiply  them  together  for  the  area. 
If  the  door  be  paneled  on  both  sides,  take  double  its  measure  for  the  workman- 
ship ;  but  if  the  one  side  only  be  paneled,  take  the  area  and  its  half  for  the 
Workmanship.  —  For  the  surrounding  architrave,  gird  it  about  the  outermost  parts 
for  its  leiiirth  ;  and  measure  over  it,  as  far  as  it  can  be  seen  when  the  door  is 
open,  for  the  breadth. 

Window-shutters,  bases,  ^c,  are  measured  in  the  same  manner. 

In  the  measuring  of  roofing  for  workmanship  alone,  holes  for  chimney-shafts 
and  sky-lights  are  generally  deducted.  But  in  measuring  for  work  and  mate- 
rials, they  commonly  measure  in  all  sky-lights,  lutheranlights,  and  holes  for 
the  chimney-shafts,  on  account  of  their  trouble  and  waste  of  materials. 

The  diiors  and  shutters,  being  worked  on  both  sides,  are  reckoned  work  and 
half  work. 

Hemlock  and  Pine  Shingles  are  generally  18  inches  long,  and  of  the  average 
width  of  4  inches.  A%Tien  nailed  to  the  roof  6  inches  are  generally  left  cut  to 
the  weather,  and  6  shingles  are  therefore  required  to  a  square  foot.  Cedar  and 
Cypress  Shingles  are  generally  20  inches  long,  and  6  inches  wide,  and  therefore 
a  less  number  are  required  for  a  "square."  On  account  of  waste  and  delects, 
1000  shingles  should  be  allowed  to  a  square. 

Two  4penny  nails  are  allowed  to  each  shingle,  equal  to  1200  to  a  square. 

The  weight  of  a  square  of  partitioning  may  be  estimated  at  from  1500  to 
2000  lbs.;  a  square  of  single-joisted  flooring,  at  from  1200  to  2000  lbs.;  a  square  of 
framed  flooring,  at  from  2700  to  45(XI  lbs;  asquareof  deafening,  at  about  1-500  lbs. 
100  superficial  feet  make  one  square  of  boarding,  flooring,  &c. 

In  selecling  Timber,  avoid  spongy  heart,  porous  grain,  and  dead  knots; 
choose  the  brightest  in  color,  and  where  the  strong  red  grain  appears  to  rise  on 
the  surface. 

The  Carpenter  will  find  in  the  "  Business  Man's  Assistant "  Tables  giving  the 
solidcontentsot  Timber  and  Logs  ;  the  square  feet  in  Scantling  from  2.2  to  15.16  in- 
ches ;  the  square  feet  in  Boards  and  Planks;  the  contents  of  Logs  in  standard 
Board  measure;  the  strength  and  weight  of  Iron  Cylinders,  Trusses,  Plates, 
Cast  Iron  for  Beams,  and  Hoop  Iron. 

Number  of  Americcin  Iron  Machine  Cut  Nails,  in  a  pound,  (by  count.) 


Size. 


Number. 


Size. 


Number. 


Size. 


Number. 


3  penny     .  .  408 

4  "      ...  275 

5  "      ...  227 


6  penny  .  .  156 

8     "     .   .  .  lUO 

10     "     ...    66 


12  penny  ...  52 
20  "  ....  32 
30     "     ....  25 


136 


MEASUKE3IENT    OF    SLATERS'    WORK. 


SASH    TABLE.—  Size  and  Prices  of  Sashes,  Shutters,  Ifc.  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


1 

Size  of  Sash 

"S  S  £  ■-■ 

o  ej  J?  '3 

I    Price  of  Window 

Size  of  Lights. 

for  12  light  'Windows. 

Price 
Sash 
Light 

Price 
Vcnit 
Shutt 
per  p 

Frames. 

Width. 

'      Length. 

Box. 

Common. 

IneliLS. 

In. 

feet.  in. 

feet.  in. 

cts. 

$    cts. 

$  cts. 

$    CIS. 

8  by  10 

li 

2     4 

3   10 

4 

1  37i 

2  00 

1   20 

8  by  10 

n 

2     4 

3  10 

5 

1  62^ 

2  00 

1  20 

9  by  12 

li 

2     74 

4     6i 

5 

1  62i 

2  50 

1   30 

9  by  12 

u 

2     7| 

4     6i 

6 

1  75 

2  50 

1  30 

10  by  12 

ij 

2  10^ 

4     6i 

5 

1  62h 

2  50 

1  30 

10  by  12 

n 

2  m 

4     6^ 

6 

1  75 

2  50 

1  30 

10  by  14 

n 

2  lOi 

5     2i 

7 

2  12i 

2  75 

1  40 

10  by  15 

If 

2  104 

5     6i 

74 

2  25 

2  75 

1  40 

10  by  16 

n 

2  lOi 

5  lO.i 

8 

2  374 

3  20 

1  50 

11. by  15 

n 

3     2 

5     6i 

8 

2  374 

3  20 

1  50" 

11  by  16 

n 

3     2 

5  lOi 

84 

2  50 

3  35 

1  60 

11  by  17 

n 

3     2 

6     2i 

84 

2  62.i 

3  50 

1   70 

12  by  16 

n 

3     5 

5  104 

8* 

2  62i 

3  75 

1  80 

12  by  18 

n 

3     5 

6     6i 

9 

2  874 

4  00 

1   90 

12  by  20 

n 

3     5 

7     2i 

10 

3  124 

4  25 

2  12i 

12  by  22 

n 

3     5 

7    10;^ 

11 

3  37i 

4  50 

2  30 

12  by  24 

n 

3     5 

8     6i 

12 

3  624 

4  75 

2  50 

Sasli  1  1-2  or  1  ."i-t  inches  thick,  add  11-2  cents  per  light,  to  1  3-8  inch  prices  ;  for  Plough- 
ing and  Boring  sasli,  add  1-2  cent  i>er  light  ;  all  1  3-8  sash  arc  made  with  hook  rails. 

Vcnitian  Shutters,  1  1-2  or  1  3-4  inches  thick,  add  50  cents  per  pnir  to  1  3-8  inch  prices. 
Shutters  arc  made  1 1-t  inches  longer  than  sash.    Pivot  or  Rolling  Shutters,  extra  price. 

MEASUREMENT    OF    SLATERS'    WORK. 

In  these  article.s,  the  content  of  a  roof  is  found  by  multiplying  the  length  of  the 
riilge  by  the  girth  over  from  cave?  to  eaves  ;  msiking  allowance  in  this  girth  for 
the  double  row  of  slates  at  the  bottom,  or  for  how  much  one  row  of  slates  is  laid 
over  another.  When  the  roof  is  ot  »  true  pilcli,  that  is,  forming  a  right  angle  at 
lop,  llien  the  breadth  of  the  building  with  its  half  added,  is  the  girlh  over  both 
sides.  In  angles  formed  in  a  roof,  running  from  ilic  ridge  to  the  eaves,  when  the 
angle  bends  inwards,  it  is  called  a  valley  ;  but  when  oul\rards,  it  is  called  a  hip.- 
It  is  not  usual  to  make  deductions  for  cliiinney-shafis,  sky-lights  or  other  openings. 

SLATES.     [From  the  Quarries  of  Rutland  County,   VermoTit.} 


3  inch 

Cover. 

No.  of  Slates 

2  inch  Cover. 
No.  of  slates 

3 

inch  Cover. 

2  inch  Cover. 

No.  of  Slates 

No.  of  slates 

Sizes  of  Slates. 

to  the  Siiiiarc 

to  the  square 

Sizes  of  Slates. 

to  the  Square 

to  the  square 

or  100  Feet. 

or  100  Feet. 

or  100  Feet. 

or  100  Feet. 

24  l)y  16 

86 

84 

18  by 

11 

174.i 

163.i 

24  Ijy  14 

98 

93i 

18  by 

10 

192 

180 

24  by  12 

114 

109 

18  by 

9 

213 

200 

22  by  14 

108 

W)2.i 

16  by 

12 

184 

171i 

22  by  12 

126 

120 

16  by 

10 

2214 

205.1 

22  by  10 

152 

144 

16  by 

9 

246 

228i 

20  by  14 

129 

114  i 

16  by 

8 

277 

257 

20  by  12 

143 

133i 

14  by 

10 

262 

240 

20  by   11 

146 

1154 

14  by 

9 

293 

266i 

20  by   10 

169i 

160 

14  by 

8 

327 

son 

18  by   12 

160 

150 

14  by 

7 

374 

343 

"  Earh  Slate  i«3  inches  iii)M>  or  rovKii.  The  rule  for  nii'iiniirini;  Slatinft  Is,  to  add  one 
fiixit  for  all  hipn  and  vnll<-y<*.  No  deduction  U  niudo  for  I.uthcnii)  windows,  skyligbtJ  or 
chimneys,  cxce[it  they  are  of  nuuiual  size  i  then  one  half  is  deducted," 


plasterers',  pavers',  and  painters'  work.       137 


IMPORTED  SLATES. 


Names  of  Slates. 


Duchesses,   .... 

Marchionesses,   .   . 

Countesses,  .... 

Viscountesses,    .  . 

Ladies, 

do 

do ' 

do 

Plantations,  .... 

do 

do.         .... 

Doubles, 

do.      small,  .  . 

School    Slates    for 

Blackboards,    .  .  . 


Sizes. 


laches.     Inches. 

24  by  12 


22 
20 
18 
16 
16 
14 
12 
14 
13 
12 
13 
11 


12 

10 

10 

10 

8 

8 

8 

12 

10 

10 

7 

7 


5  ft.  by  2  1-2  ft 
5  feet  by  3  feet. 


Number  of  Super- 
ficial Feet  each  M 
of  1200  will  cover. 


1100 
1000 
750 
666 
583 
466 
400 
333 
600 
458 


1-3 


1-3 


416  2-3 
320  5-6 
262  1-2 


Weight  of 
each  M  of 
1200  Slates. 


60 

55 

40 

36 

31 

25 

22 

18  1-2 

33 

25 

23 

17  1-2 

14  1-2 


cwt. 

(( 
(( 
it 
(( 
(( 
(( 
(( 
(( 
(( 
(< 


MEASUREMENT    OF    PLASTERERS'    WORK. 

Plasterers'  work  is  of  two  kinds,  namely,  ceiling — which  is  plastering  upon  laths 
— and  rendering,  winch  is  plastering  upon  walls,  which  are  measured  separately. 

The  comenls  are  eslimaied  eiiher  by  ihe  fool  or  yard,  or  square  of  ICO  feet. 
Enriched  mouldings,  &c.,  are  rated  by  runningor  lineal  measure.  One  foot  extra 
is  allowed  for  each  mitre. 

One  half  of  the  openings,  windows,  doors,  &c.,  allowed  to  compensaie  for 
trouble  of  finishing  returns  at  top  and  sides. 

Cornices  and  mouldings,  if  12  inches  or  more  in  girt,  are  sometimes  estimated 
by  the  sq   ft.  ;  if  less  than  12  inches  ihey  are  usually  measured  by  the  lineal  foot. 

1  bushel  of  cement  will  cover  1 1-7  square  yards  at  1  inch  in  thickness, 
do.  do.  do.  li  do.      do.         |     do.  do. 

do.  do.  do.  2}  do.      do.         J    do.  do. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  1  of  gand  will  caver  2^  sq.  yds.  at  1  inch  in  thickness. 
do.  do.  do.  do.       3        do.  f     (jo.  (jo. 

do.  do.  do.  do.       4J      do.  |    do.  do. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  2  of  sand  will  cover  3|  square  yds.  at  1  inch  in  thickness, 
do.  do.  do.  do.         4i        do.  |    do.  do. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


63 


do. 


do. 


do. 


1  cwt.  of  mastic  and  1  gallon  of  oil  will  cover  IJ  yards  at  |,  or  2J  at  J  inch, 

1  cubic  yard  of  lime,  2  yards  of  road  or  drift  sand,  and  3  bushels  of  hair, 
will  cover  T5  yards  of  render  and  set  on  brick,  and  70  yards  on  lath,  or 65  yards 
plaster,  or  reyider,  2  coats  and  set  on  brick,  and  60  yards  on  lath  j  floated  work 
will  require  about  the  same  as  2  coats  and  set. 

Laths  are  i}  to  It  inches  by  4  feet  in  length,  and  are  usually  set  ^th  of  an  inch 
apart.  A  bundle  contains  100.    1  bundle  of  laths  and  500  nails  cover  about  4J  yds. 

MEASUREMENT    OF    PAVERS'    WORK. 

Pavers'  work  is  done  by  the  square  yard.  And  the  content  is  found  by  multi- 
plying the  length  by  the  breadih.     Grading  for  paving  is  charged  by  the  day. 

MEASUREMENT    OF    PAINTERS'    WORK. 

Painters'  work  is  computed  in  square  yards.  Every  part  is  measured  where 
the  color  lies  ;  the  measuring  line  is  forced  into  all  the  mouldings  and  corners. 

12* 


138         painters',    glaziers',    and   fLUMEERS'    WORK. 

Cornices,  mouldings,  narrow  skirlings,  reveals  to  doors  and  windows,  and 
generally  all  work  not  more  than  nine  inclies  wide,  are  valued  by  ilieir  length. 
Sasli-franies  are  charged  so  much  each  according  to  their  size,  and  the  squares 
so  much  a  dozen.  Mouldings, cut  in,  are  charged  by  ihe  foot  run,  and  the  work- 
man always  receives  an  extra  price  for  pnriy-colors.  Writing  is  charged  by  the 
inch,  and  the  price  given  is  regulated  by  ihe  skill  and  manner  in  which  the  work  ' 
is  executed  :  the  same  is  true  ot"  imitations  and  marbling.  The  price  ol'paiaiiii"- 
varies  exceedingly,  some  colors  being  more  expensive  and  requiring  much  more 
labor  thiin  others.  In  measuring  open  railing,  it  is  customary  lo  tiiUe  it  as  (lat 
work,  which  pays  for  the  extra  labor ;  and  as  the  rails  are  painted  on  all  sides, 
the  two  surfaces  are  taken.    It  is  customary  to  allow  all  edges  and  sinking?. 

MEASUREMENT   OF    GLAZIERS'    WORK. 

Glaziers'  work  is  sometimes  measured  by  the  sq.  ft.,  sometimes  by  the  piece, 
oral  so  much  per  light  ;  except  wlierc  the  glass  is  set  in  metallic  iVanies,  when 
the  charge  is  by  the  foot  In  estimating  by  the  sq.  ft.,  it  is  customary  lo  include 
the  whole  sash.  Circular  or  oval  windows  are  measured  as  if  ihey  were  square. 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE    SIZE    AND    NUMBER    OF    LIGHTS 
TO    THE    100    SQUARE    FEET. 


Size. 

Lights. 

Size. 

Lights. 

1    Size. 

1  Lights. 

!    Size. 

Lights 

6  by  S 

3U0 

12  by  14 

86 

14  by  22 

47 

20  by  20 

36 

7  by  9 

229 

12  by  15 

80 

14  by  24 

43 

20  by  22 

33 

8  by  10 

180 

12  by  16 

75 

15  by  15 

64 

20  by  24 

30 

8  by  11 

164 

12  by  17 

71 

15  by  16 

60 

20  by  25 

29 

8  by  12 

1.50 

12  by  18 

67 

15  by  18 

53 

20  Iiy  26 

28 

9  by  10 

160 

12  by  19 

63 

15  by  20 

48 

20  by  28 

26 

9  by  11 

146 

12  by  20 

60 

15  by  21 

46 

21  by  27 

25 

9  by  12 

133 

12  by  21 

57 

15  by  22 

44 

22  by  24 

27 

9  by  13 

123 

12  by  22 

55 

15  by  24 

40 

22  by  26 

25 

9  by  14 

114 

12  by  23 

52 

16  by  16 

56 

22  by  2S 

23 

9  by  16 

100 

12  by  24 

50 

16  by  17 

53 

24  by  28 

21 

10  by  10 

144 

13  by  14 

79 

16  by  18 

50 

24  by  30 

20 

10  by  12 

120 

13  by  15 

74 

16  by  20 

45 

24  by  32 

19 

10  by  13 

111 

13  by  16 

69 

16  by  21 

43 

25  by  30 

19 

10  by  14 

103 

13  by  17 

65 

16  by  22 

41 

26  by  36 

15 

10  by  15 

96 

13  by  18 

61 

16  by  24 

38 

2S  by  34 

15 

10  by  16 

90 

13  by  19 

58 

17  by  17 

50 

30  by  40 

12 

10  by  17 

85 

13  by  20 

55 

17  by  18 

47 

31  by  36 

13 

10  by  IS 

80 

13  by  21 

53 

17  by  20 

42 

31  by  40 

12 

11  by  11 

119 

13  by  22 

50 

17  by  22 

38 

31  by  42 

12 

11  by  12 

109 

13  by  24 

46 

17  by  24 

35 

32  by  42 

10 

11  by  13 

101 

14  bv  14 

73 

18  by  18 

44 

32  by  44 

10 

1 1  by  1  4 

P4 

14  by  15 

68 

18  by  20 

40 

33  by  45 

10 

11  by  1.5 

87 

14  by  16 

64 

18  by  22 

36 

34  by  46 

9 

11  by  IG 

82 

14  by  17 

60 

18  by  24 

33 

30  l)y  52 

9 

11  by  17 

77 

14  by  18 

57 

19  by  19 

40 

32  by  56 

8 

11  by  IS 

73 

14  by  19 

54 

19  by  20 

38 

33  by  56 

8 

12  by  12 

100 

14  by  20 

61 

19  by  22 

34 

36  by  58 

7 

12  by  13 

92 

14  by  21 

49 

19  by  24 

32 

38  by  58 

7 

MEASUREMENT    OF    PLUMBERS'    WORK. 

Plumbers'  work  is  rated  at  30  much  a  pound,  or  else  by  the  hundred  weight, 
of  11-.'  pounds.  Sheet  lead,  used  in  roofing,  pullering,  &c.,  is  from  7  to  12  lbs.  to 
the  Hi|uiire  foot.  And  u  pipe  of  iin  inch  bore  is  cuiniiionly  frcnii  0  to  13  lbs.  lo  ihe 
yard  in  length.  —  [Sec  Table,"  Weij;hC  of  Lead  Pipe  per  Fool''  J 


SIZE  &  WEIGHT    OF  LEAD  PIPES,  EOPES  &  CHAINS.      139 


PATENT    IMPROVED    LEAD    PIPE,    SIZES    AND    WEIGHT 

PER    FOOT. 


Calibre. 

Weight 

Calibre 

Weight 

Calibre 

AVeight 

Calibre 

Weight 

Calibre. 

Weight 

per  foot. 
lbs.  ozs. 

per  foot, 
lbs.  ozs. 

per  foot, 
lbs.  ozs.' 

per  foot, 
lbs.  ozs. 

Inches. 

per  foot. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

lbs.  ozs. 

% 

0 

^ 

1    4 

X 

1    4 

1 

4    0 

ij 

5    0 

8 

K 

1     8 

ih 

2    0 

tt 

6    0 

A 

4     0 

10 

u 

2    0 

u 

2    4 

1>^ 

2    8 

2 

5     0 

12 

(C 

3    0 

u 

2    8 

u 

3    0 

cc 

G     0 

1    0 

% 

13 

IC 

3    0 

cc 

3    8 

!C 

7     0 

1     8 

u 

1    0 

11 

4    0 

cc 

4    0 

2^1  ■S 

11     0 

y^ 

8 

Cf 

1    8 

1 

1    8 

(i 

5    0 

3      3 

13    0 

10 

ec 

2    0 

IC 

1  12 

IK 

3    0 

3n^ 

15     0 

12 

(C 

2  12 

(C 

2    0 

(( 

3    8    1 

4      -2 

18    0 

14 

K 

12 

tc 

2    8 

IC 

4    0    [ 

4UI 

20    0 

_, 

1    0 

t( 

14 

<( 

3    0 

IC 

4    8    : 

5 

22    0 

Sheet  Lead.— Weight  of  a  Square  Foot,  2\,  3,  3^,  4,  4^,  5,  6,  7, 
8^,  9,  10  lbs.  and  upwards. 


BOSTON    LEAD    PIPE 

SIZES 

AND 

WEIGHT    PER 

FOOT. 

1-2  Inch. 

5-8  Inch.  13-4  Inch. 

1  Inch. 

11-4  Inch. 

11-2  Inch. 

13-4  Inch. 

2  Inch. 

Ibi. 

oz. 

lbs. 

cz. 

lbs. 

oz. 

lb$. 

oz. 

lbs. 

oz. 

lbs. 

oz. 

lbs. 

oz. 

lbs.    oz. 

10 

2 

12 

1 

1 

1 

8 

2 

4 

3 

^ 

3 

10 

4 

12 

12 

3 

1 

6 

1 

12 

2 

8 

3 

12 

4 

3 

^ 

8 

IG 

1 

12 

2 

2 

13 

4 

4 

5 

2 

7 

12 

1 

4 

2 

4 

o 

6 

3 

3 

4 

10 

1 

S 

3 

2 

2 

14 

3 

13 

6 

1 

11 

3 

14 

3 

13 

1 

14 

5 

2 

4 

1 

6 

4 

COMPARATIVE  STRENGTH  AND  WEIGHT  OF  ROPES 

AND  CHAINS. 


li 
^1 

si 

1.2 
5  a 
S| 

-1 

^1 

roof  Strength 

in 
ns  and  cwt. 

3.3 

Weight  per 
athom  in  lbs. 

Diameter  of 
iain  in  inches. 

li 

oof  strength 

in 
ns  and  cwt. 

O 

Ph 

(h 

CU    S- 

o 

Ui 

O 

b 

S    B 

3^ 

2| 

5|^ 

1    5i 

10 

23 

i 

43 

10    0 

4^ 

4-^ 

f 

8 

1  16f 

lOf 

28 

\^ 

49 

11 11 

5 

5f 

7 

10^ 

2  10 

lU 

301 

lin. 

56 

13    8 

5f 

7 

^ 

14 

3    5i 

m 

36 

Wr 

63 

14  18 

6^ 

Of 

9 
TIT 

18 

4    3J. 

13 

39 

n 

71 

16  14 

7 

IH 

* 

22 

5    2 

I3f 

45 

ifV 

79 

18  11 

8 

15 

4^ 

27 

6    4J. 

144 

48J- 

u 

87 

20    8 

H 

19 

.3 

32 

7    7 

15i 

56 

ItV 

96 

22  13 

n 

21 

1  3 

37 

8  131 

16 

60 

If 

106 

24  18 

Note.  —  It  must  bn  understood  and  also  borne  in  mind,  that,  in  eslimatins:  the 
amount  oflen^iile  strain  lo  wliich  a  body  is  subjected,  the  weight  of  tlie  body 
itself  must  also  be  taken  in"lo  account:  for  according  to  its  position  so  may  it 
approximate  to  us  whole  wcia-ht  in  lending  lo  produce  extension  within  itself; 
as  in  the  almost  consiaiu  application  of  ropes  and  chains  to  great  depths,  con- 
siderable heights,  &c. 


140 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS    OF    CONSTRUCTION. 

IFrom  Templeton's  Workshop  Companion.l 

Materials  of  construction  are  liable  to  four  different  kinds  of  strain  ; 
viz.,  strelcliing,  crushing,  transverse  action,  and  torsion  or  twisting  :  tlie 
first  of  wliich  depends  upon  the  body's  tenacity  alone  ;  the  second,  on  its 
resistance  to  compression  ;  the  third,  «n  its  tenacity  and  compression  com- 
bined ;  and  the  fourth,  on  that  property  by  which  it  opposes  any  acting  force 
tending  to  ciiange  from  a  straight  line,  to  that  of  a  spiral  direction,  the 
fibres  of  which  the  body  is  composed. 

In  bodies,  the  power  of  tenacity  and  resistance  to  compression,  in  the  di- 
rection of  their  length,  is  as  the  cross  section  of  their  area  multiplied  by  the 
results  of  experiments  on  similar  bodies,  as  exhibited  in  the  following  tables. 

Table  shoicing  the  Tenacities,  Resistances  to  Compression,  and  other  Prop- 
erties  of  the  common  Materials  of  Construction. 


Absolute. 

Corapa 

red  with  Cast  Iron. 

Kames  of  Bodies. 

Tenacity 

Resistance 
to  compres- 
sion iu  lbs. 

Its 

Its  ex- 

Its 

in    lbs.   per 

strength 

tensibility 

stitfnesg 

sq.  inch. 

per sq. inch. 

is 

is 

is 

Ash, 

14130 

0.23 

2.6 

0.089 

Beech,     . 

12225 

8548 

0.15 

2.1 

0.073 

Brass, 

17968 

10.304 

0.435 

0.9 

0.49 

Brick,      . 

275 

562 

Cast  Iron, 

13434 

86397 

1.000 

1.0 

1.000 

Copper  (wrought),  . 

33000 

Elm, 

9720 

1033 

0.21 

2.9 

0.073 

Fir,  or  Pine,  white, 

12.346 

2028 

0.23 

2.4 

0.1 

"             "      Red,    . 

11800 

5375 

0.3 

2.4 

0.1 

«'             "      Yellow, 

11835 

5445 

0.25 

2.9 

0.087 

Granite  (^Aberdeen), 

10910 

Gun-metal   (copper  8, 

and  tin  1).    . 

35838 

0.65 

1.23 

0.535 

Malleable  Iron, 

56000 

1.12 

0.86 

1.3 

Larch, 

12240 

5568 

0.136 

2.3 

0.0585 

Lead, 

1S24 

0.096 

25 

0.038 

Mahogany,  Honduras, 

11475 

8000 

024 

2.9 

0.487 

Marble,  . 

551 

6060 

Oak, 

11880 

9504 

0.25 

2.8 

0.093 

Rope  (1  in.  in  circum.) 

200 

Steel, 

128000 

Stone,  Bath,    . 

478 

"        Craigleith,     , 

772 

5490 

"        Dundee, 

2661 

6630 

"       Portland, 

857 

3729 

Tin  (ca-t) 

4736 

0  182 

0.75 

0  25 

Zinc  (sheet)     . 

9120 

0  365 

05 

0.76 

RESISTANCE    TO    LATERAL   PRESSORE,   OR   TRANSVERSE   ACTION. 

The  Strength  of  a  square  or  rectangular  beam  to  rcHist  iaterni  pressure, 
acliiig  in  a  perpendicular  chrcrtioii  lo  ils  length,  is  as  the  breadth  and  scpiare 
of  the  depth;  and  inversely  as  the  length  j— thus,  a  beam  twice  the  breadth 


ELASTICITY    AND    STRENGTH    OF    TIMBEE. 


141 


of  another,  all  other  circumstances  being  alike,  equal  twice  the  strength  of 
the  other  J  or  twice  the  depth,  equal  four  times  the  strength,  and  twice  the 
length,  equal  only  half  the  strength,  &c.,  according  to  the  rule. 

Table  of  Data,  containing  the  Results  of  Experiments  on  the  Elasticity 
and  Strength  of  various  Species  of  Timber,  by  Mr.  Barlow. 


Snecies  of 

Value  of 

Value  of 

Species  of 

Timber. 

E. 

S.        1 

Timber. 

Teak, 

174.7 

2462   1 

Elm,  . 

Poena, 

122.26 

2221   ' 

Pitch  pine, 

English  Oak, 

105. 

1672  j 

Red  pine,    . 

Canadian  do. 

155.5 

1766  i 

New  England  Fir. 

Dantzic    do. 

S6.2 

1457 

Riga  Fir,    . 

Adriatic    do. 

70.5 

13S3 

Mar  Forest     do. 

Ash,  . 

119. 

2026 

Larch, 

Beech, 

98. 

1556  j 

Norway  Spruce. 

Value  of  Value  of 
E.              S. 

50.64     1013 

88.68 

1632 

133. 

1341 

158.5 

1102 

90. 

1100 

63. 

1200 

76. 

900 

105.47 

1474 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  a  beam  capable  of  .lustainin^  a  given  iceight,  with  a  giv- 
en degree  of  deflection,  when  sttpported  at  both  ends. 
Rule. — iMuhiply  tlie  wei,!,'ht  to  be  supported  in  lbs.  by  the  cube  of  the  length 

in  fee! ;  divide  the  product  by  3"2  times  the  tabular  value  of  E,  multiplied  into  ihe 

given  elefleciiun  in  inches  ;  and  the  quotient  is  tlie  breadth  multiplied  by  the  cube 

of the  depth  in  inches. 
Note  1  .—"When  the  beam  is  intended  to  be  square,  then  the  fourth  root  of  the  quotient 

is  the  breadth  and  depth  required. 
Note  2.— If  the  beam  is  to  be  cylindrical,  multiply  the  quotient  by  1.",  and  the  fourth 

root  of  the  product  is  the  diameter. 

Ex.  The  distance  between  the  supports  of  a  beam  of  Riga  fir  is  16  feet,  and 
the  weight  n  must  be  capable  of  sustaining  in  the  middle  of  iis  length  is  S00()  lbs, 
with  a  deflection  of  pot  more  than  3  of  an  inch  ;  what  must  be  the  depth  of  the 
beam, supposing  the  breadth  8  inches? 

16  X  8000  „    

-— — ^^ =  15175  -^  8  =  V1897  =  12.35  in.,  the  depth. 

90  X  32  X  .75  1  I' 

To  determine  the  absolute  strength  of  a  rectangular  beam  of  timber,  lehen  supported 
at  both  ends,  and  loaded  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  as  beams  in  general  ought  to 
be  calcidatfd  to,  so  that  they  may  be  rendered  capable  of  withstanding  all  accident- 
al cases  of  emergency. 

Rule. — IMuhiply  the  tabular  value  of  S  by  four  times  the  depth  of  the  beam  in 
inches,  and  by  the  area  of  the  cross  section  in  inches ;  divide  the  product  by  the 
distance  between  the  supports  in  inches,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  absolute 
strength  of  the  beam  in  lbs. 

Note  ].— If  the  beam  be  not  laid  horizontally,  the  distance  between  the  supports.fot 
calculation,  must  be  the  horizontal  distance. 

Note  2.— One  fourth  of  the  weight  obtained  by  the  rule,  is  the  greatest  weight  that  ought 
to  be  applied  in  practice  as  permanent  load. 

Note  3.— If  the  load  is  to  be  applied  at  any  other  point  than  themiddle,  then  the  strength 
will  be  as  the  product  of  the  two  distances  is  to  the  square  of  half  the  length  of  the  beam 
between  the  supports  ;— or,  twice  the  distance  from  one  end,  multiplied  by  twice  from  the 
other,  and  divided  by  the  whole  length,  equal  the  effective  length  of  the  beam. 

Ex.  In  a  building  IS  feet  in  width,  an  engine  boiler  of  5}  tons  (dS-lO  lbs.  to  a 
ton)  is  to  be  fixed,  the  center  of  which  to  be  7  feet  from  the  wall,  and  having  two 
pieces  of  red  pine,  10  inches  by  6,  which  I  can  lay  across  the  two  walls  for  the 
purpose  of  slinging  ii  at  each  end,— may  I  with  sufficient  confidence  apply  them, 
60  as  to  efl'ect  this  object  ? 

•2210X5.5  -=-  2  =  6160  lbs.  to  carry  at  each  end. 

And  IS  feet  —  7  =  11,  double  each,  or  14  and  22,  then  I-IX-^  -=-  18  =  17  feet, 
or  2(W  inches,  efTective  length  of  beam. 

Tabular  value  of  S,  red  pine,  =1341X'lXlP.Xf'0  -r-  201  =  15776  lbs.  the  abso- 
lute strength  of  each  piece  of  timber  at  that  point. 


112 


STRENGTH  OF  RECTANGULAR  BEAMS. 


To  determine  tht  dimensions  of  a  rectangular  beam  capable  of  supporting  a  rsquired 
weight,  with  a  given  degree  of  deflection,  when  fixed  at  one  end. 

Rci.E. — Divide  the  weight  to  be  supported,  in  lbs.,  by  the  tabular  value  of  E, 
mulllplied  by  the  breadth  and  deflection,  both  in  inches  ;  and  the  cube  root  of  the 
quotient,  muUiplied  by  the  length  in  feet,  equal  the  depth  required  m  inches. 

Ex.  A  beam  of  ash  is  intended  to  bear  a  load  of  7U0  lbs.  at  its  extremity  ;  its 
length  being  5  feet,  breadth  4  inches,  and  the  defleclion  not  to  exceed  J  an  inch. 

Tabular  value  of  E  =  119X4X-5  =  23S  the  divisor ; 

then  700  -^  238  =  V2.94  X  5  =  7.25  inches,  depth  of  the  beam. 

To  find  the  a'jsolute  strength  of  arectangular  beam,  when  fixed  at  one  end,  and  load- 
ed at  the  other 

RcLE — Multiply  the  value  of  S  by  the  depth  of  the  beam,  and  by  the  area  of 
its  section,  both  in  inches  ;  divide  the  product  by  the  leverage  in  inches,  and  the 
quotient  equal  the  absolute  strength  ol  the  beam  in  llis. 

Ex.  A  beam  of  Riga  fir,  12  inches  by  4i,  and  projecting  6J  feet  from  the  wall; 
what  is  the  greatest  weight  it  will  support  at  the  extremity  of  its  length  ? 

Tabular  value  of  S  =  1100.        12X4.5  =  54  sectional  area. 
Then,  1100X12X54 -h  7S  =  913S.4  lbs. 

When  fracture  of  a  beam  is  produced  by  vertical  pressure,  the  fibres  of  the 
lower  section  of  fracture  are  separated  by  extension,  whilst  at  the  same  lime 
those  of  the  upper  portion  are  destroyed  by  compression  ;  hence  exists  a  point  in 
section  where  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  takes  place,  and  which  is  distinguished 
as  the  point  of  neutral  axis.  Therefore,  by  the  law  of  fracture  thus  established, 
and  proper  data  of  tenacity  and  compression  given,  as  in  the  preceding  table, 
we  are  enabled  to  form  metal  beams  of  strongest  section  with  tlie  least  possible 
material.  Thus,  in  cast  iron,  the  resistance  to  compression  is  nearly  as  (ij  to  1 
of  tenacity,  consequently  a  beam  of  cast  iron,  to  be  of  sirontjest  section,  must  be 
of  the  following  form,  and  a  parabola  in  the  direction  of  its  length, 
the  quantity  of  material  in  the  bottom  flange  being  al-.out  G.J  times 
that  of  the  upper.  But  such  is  not  the  case  with  beams  of  lim- 
ber ;  for  although  the  tenacity  of  timber  be  on  an  average  twice 
that  of  its  resistance  to  compression,  its  flexibility  is  so  great, 
that  any  considerable  length  of  beam,  where  columns  cannot  be 
situated  to  its  support,  requires  to  be  strengthened  or  trussed  by 
iron  rods,  as  in  the  following  manner. 


T 


And  these  applications  of  principle  not  only  tend  to  diminish  deflection,  but  the 
required  purpose  is  also  more  eflcctivcly  attained,  and  that  by  lighter  pieces  of 
timber. 

To  ascertain  the  absolute  strength  of  a  cast  iron  beam  of  the  preceding  form,  or  that 
of  strongest  section. 

RiT.K.— Multiply  the  sectional  area  of  the  bottom  flanse  in  inches  by  the  depth 
of  the  beam  in  niches,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  distance  between  the  sup- 
ports, aUo  in  inches;  and  514  limes  the  quotient  equal  the  absolute  strength  of 
the  beam  in  cwts. 

.  The  strongest  form  in  which  any  given  quantity  of  matter  can  be  disposed  is 
that  of  a  hollow  cylinder;  and  it  ha<i  been  drnioiislratcd  llinl  the  maximum  of 
Btreni;ili  is  ol)inined  in  cast  iron,  when  llie  lliickiiess  of  the  niinulus,  or  ring, 
am'iuiiiK  ti>  oiie-flrih  of  the  cylinder's  exicrnal  dinineter;  the  relative  strength  of 
a  Kollil  to  that  of  a  hollow  cylinder  being  us  the  diameters  of  tiieir  sections.  ( Set 
Tables.) 


"WEIGHT    CAST    IRON   BEAMS   WILL    SUSTAIN. 


143 


A  Table  showing  the  Weight  or  Pressure  a  beam  of  Cast  Iron,  1  inch  in 
breadth,  iviil  sustain,  without  destroijitig  its  elasiicjurce.  whe7i  it  is  sup- 
ported at  each  end,  and  loaded  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  and  also  the 
deflection  in  the  middle  which  that  weight  will  produce.  By  Mr. 
Hodgkinson,  Manchester. 


Length. 

6  feet. 

7  feet. 

8  feet. 

9  feet.  * 

10  feet. 

Depth 

Weight 

Defl. 

Weight  i  Defl. 

Weight  Defl. 

Weight 

Defl. 

Weiglit  Defl. 

in  in. 

in  lbs. 

1278 

in  m- 

in  lbs. 

in  in. 

in  lbs.  in  in. 

in  lbs. 

in  in. 

in  lbs.  in  in 

3 

.21 

1089 

.33 

954 

.426 

855 

.54 

765  .66 

3* 

1739 

.205 

1482 

.28 

1298 

.365 

1164 

.46 

1041  !..57 

4 

2272 

.18 

1936 

.245 

1700 

.32 

1520 

.405 

1360 

.5 

4* 

2S75 

.16 

2450 

.217 

2146 

.284 

1924 

36 

1721 

.443 

5 

3560 

.144 

3050 

.196 

2650 

.256 

2375 

.32 

2125 

.4 

6 

5112 

.12 

4356 

.163 

3816 

.213 

3420 

.27 

3060 

.33 

7 

6958 

.103 

5929 

.14 

5194 

.183 

4655 

.23 

4165 

.29 

8 

9088 

.09 

7744 

.123 

6784 

.16 

6080 

203 

5440 

.25 

9 

9801 

.109 

8586 

.142 

7695 

.18 

6885 

.22 

10 

12100 

.098 

10600 

.128 

9500 

.162 

8500 

.2 

11 

12826 

.117 

11495 

.15 

102S5 

.182 

12 

15264 

.107 

13680 

.135 

12240 

.17 

13 

16100 

.125 

14400 

.154 

14 

18600 

.115 

16700  .143 

12  feet. 

14  feet. 

16  feet. 

18  fe 

et. 

20  feet. 

6 

2548 

■48 

2184 

.65 

1912 

.85 

1699 

1.08 

1530 

1.34 

7 

3471 

.41 

2975 

.58 

2603 

.73 

2314 

.93 

2082 

1.14 

8 

4532 

.36 

3884 

.49 

3396 

.64 

3020 

.81 

2720 

1.00 

9 

5733 

.32 

4914 

.44 

4302 

.57 

.3825 

.72 

3438 

.89 

10 

7083 

.28 

6071 

.39 

5312 

.51 

4722 

.64 

42.50 

.8 

11 

8570 

.26 

7346 

.36 

6428 

.47 

5714 

.59 

5142 

.73 

12 

10192 

.24 

8736 

.33 

7648 

.43 

6796 

..54 

6120 

.67 

13 

11971 

.22 

10260 

.31 

8978 

.39 

7980 

.49 

7182 

.61 

14 

13883 

.21 

11900 

.28 

10412 

.36 

9255 

.46 

8330 

.57 

15 

15937 

.19 

13660 

.26 

11952 

.34 

10624 

.43 

9562 

.53 

16 

18128 

.18 

15536 

.24 

13584 

.32 

12080 

.40 

10880 

.5 

17 

20500 

.17 

17500 

.23 

15353 

.30 

13647 

.38 

12282 

.47 

18 

22932 

.16 

19656 

.21 

17208 

.28 

15700 

.36 

13752 

.44 

Note. — This  Table  shows  ihe  greatest  weight  that  ever  ought  lo  be  laid  upon 
abeam  for  permanent  load  ;  and,  if  there  be  any  liability  to  jerks,  &e.,  ample 
allowance  must  be  made  ;  also,  the  weight  of  the  beam  itself  must  be  included. 
(See  Tables  of  Cast  Iron.) 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  east  iron  beam  of  given  dimensions. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  sectional  area  in  inches  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  by  3.2, 
the  product  equal  the  weight  in  lbs. 

Ex.  Required  the  weight  of  a  uniform  rectangular  beam  of  cast  iron,  16  feet 
in  length,  11  inches  in  breadth^and  }^  inch  in  thickness. 

11  X  1-5  X  16  X  3.2  =  844.8  lbs. 

RESISTANCE    OF    BODIES    TO    FLEXURE    BY   VERTICAL    PRESSURE. 

When  a  piece  of  timber  is  employed  as  a  column  or  support,  its  tendency  to 
yielding  by  compression  is  diflerent  according  to  the  proportion  between  its 
length  and  area  of  its  cross  seciion  ;  and  supposing  the  form  that  of  a  cylinder 
■whose  length  is  less  than  seven  or  eight  times  its  diameier,  it  is  impossible  to 
bend  it  by  any  force  applied  longitudinally,  as  it  will  be  destroyed  by  splitting 
before  that  bending  can  lake  place  ;  but  when  the  length  exceeds  this,  the  col- 
umn will  bend  under  a  certain  load,  and  be  ultimately  destroyed  by  a  similar 


144  ELASTICITY    OF    TORSION. 

kind  of  action  to  ihat  wliieh  lias  place  in  the  transverse  strain.    Columns  of  cast 
iron  and  of  oilier  bodies  are  aUo  similarly  circumsianced. 

When  llie  length  of  a  cast  iron  column  wiih  flat  ends  equals  about  thirty  times 
its  diameter,  fracture  will  be  produced  wholly  by  bending  olihe  material.  When 
of  less  length,  fracture  takes  place  partly  by  crushing  and  partly  by  bending. 
But,  when  the  column  is  enlarged  in  the  middle  of  its  length  trom  one  and  a  half 
to  twice  its  diameter  at  the  ends,  by  being  cast  hollow,  the  strength  is  greater  by 
one-seventh  than  in  a  solid  column  containing  the  same  quantity  of  material. 

To  determine  the  dimensions  of  a  support  or  column  to  bear,  without  se7liiiile  curva- 
ture, a  given  pressure  in  the  direction  of  its  axis. 
Rule. — Multiply  the  pressure  to  be  supported  in  lbs.  by  the  square  of  the  col- 

umirs  length  in  feet,  aiKl  divide  the  product  by  twenty  times  the  tabular  value  of 

E  ;  and  the  quotient  will  be  equal  to  the  breadth  multiplied  by  the  cube  of  th© 

least  thickness,  both  being  expressed  in  inches. 

Note  1. — When  the  pillar  or  support  is  a  square,  its  side  will  be  the  fourth  root  of  the 
quotient. 

Note  2.- If  (he  pillar  or  column  be  a  cylinder,  multiply  the  tabular  value  of  E  bj  12, 
and  the  fourth  root  of  the  quotient  equal  the  diameter. 

Ex.  1.  What  should  be  the  least  dimensions  of  an  oak  support,  to  bear  a 
weight  of  2240  lbs,  without  sensible  flexure,  its  breadth  being  3  inches,  and  its 
lengths  feet? 

Tabular  value  of  E  =  105, 
2240  X  52 


Ex.  2  Required  the  side  of  a  square  piece  of  Riga  fir,  9  feet  in  length,  to  bear 
a  permanent  weight  of  GOOD  lbs. 

Tabular  value  of  E  =  96, 
^  GOOO  X  9*      .     ::Tr      ,  .     ,, 
and        V- fifi~  ~  '•^^-33  =  4  inches  nearly. 

ELASTICITY   OF   TORSION,   OR    RESISTANCE    OF    3B0DIES   TO  TWISTING, 

The  angle  of  flexure  by  torsion  is  as  the  length  and  extensibility  of  the  body 
directly  and  inversely  as  the  diameter  ;  hence,  the  length  of  a  bar  or  shaft  being 
given,  the  power,  and  the  leverage  the  power  acts  with,  being  known,  and  also 
the  number  of  degrees  of  torsion  that  %vill  not  affect  the  action  of  the  machine,  to 
determine  the  diameter  in  cast  iron  with  a  given  angle  of  flexure. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  power  in  lbs.  by  the  length  of  the  shaft  in  feet,  and  by  the 
leverage  in  I'eet ;  divide  the  product  by  fifty-five  limes  the  number  of  decrees  in 
the  angle  of  torsion  ;  and  the  fourth  root  of  the  quotient  equal  the  shaft's  diame- 
ter in  inches. 

Ex.  Required  the  diameters  for  a  series  of  shafts  35  feet  in  lengih,  and  to 
transmit  a  power  equal  to  1-J45  lbs.,  acting  at  the  circumference  ol  a  wheel  2J 
feet  radius,  so  that  the  twist  of  the  sliaAs  on  the  application  of  the  power  may  not 
exceed  one  degree. 

r^l5  X  35  X  2  5  

— — Trv^TT^—-  =<.v/1981  =  6.67  inches  in  diameter. 
55  X  1 

To  determine  the  side  of  a  square  shaft  to  resist  torsion  with  a  ^iven  flexure. 
Rui.E. — M'llliply  the  power  in  pounds  by  the  leverage  it  acts  with  in  feel,  and 
also  by  the  lengih  ol  the  shuft  in  feel ;  divide  this  product  by  02.5  times  the  angle 
of  flexure  in  degrees,  and  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  equals  the   area  of  the 
shaft  in  inches. 

Ex.  Suppose  the  lengih  of  a  shaft  to  be  12  feet,  and  to  be  driven  by  a  power 
equal  to  700  lbs.,  nz-iing  at  1  foot  from  the  centre  of  the  shaft — required  the  area 
oictoii  section,  no  that  it  may  not  exceed  1  degree  of  flexure. 

-j^^^j—  =«.vA)0.8  ^  0.53  inches. 
Relative  strength  of  Bodies  to  resist   Torsion,  I^ad  heinei  1- 


Tin 1.4 

Copper 4..'! 

Yellow  Uruss 4.0 


Gun  Melnl ."j.n 

Cast  Iron il.O 

Swedish  Iron 9.5 


English  Iron 10.1 

Illisterid  Steel 10  0 

Shear  Steel 17.0 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS — GRIER,    AND    OTHERS.      145 

STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 

iFrom  Griefs  Mechanic's  Calculator,  SfC.'\ 

Bar  of  Iiion. — The  average  breaking  weight  of  a  Bar  of  Wrouglit  Iron, 
1  inch  square,  is  2o  tons;  its  elasticity  is  destroyed,  however,  by  aljout  two- 
fifths  of  ihnt  weight,  or  10  tons.  It  is  e.^tendcd,  within  the  limits  oi  its  elas- 
ticity, .000096,  or  one-tenthousandih  part  of  an  inch  for  every  Ion  of  str.iin 
per  square  inch  of  sectional  area.  Hence,  the  greatest  constant  load  should 
never  exceed  one-fifth  of  its  breaking  weight,  or  5  tons  for  every  square 
inch  of  sectional  area. 

The  lateral  strength  of  wrought  iron,  as  compared  with  cast  iron,  is  as  14 
to 9.  Mr.  Barlow  finds  that  wrought  iron  bars,  3  inches  deep,  1  1-2  inches 
thick,  and  33  inches  between  the  supports,  will  carry  4  1-2  tons. 

Bridges. — The  greatest  extraneous  load  on  a  square  foot  is  about  120 
pounds. 

Floors. — The. least  load  on  a  square  fool  is  about  160  pounds. 

Roofs. — Covered  with  slate,  on  a  square  foot,  51  1-2  pounds. 

Bf.ams. —  When  a  beam  Is  supported  in  the  middle  and  loaded  at  each 
end,  it  will  bear  the  same  weight  as  when  supported  at  bnih  ends  and  load- 
ed in  the  middle  ;  that  is,  each  end  will  bear  half  the  weight. 

Cast  Iron  Beams  should  not  be  loaded  to  more  than  one-fifth  of  their 
ultimate  strength. 

The  strength  of  similar  beams  varies  inverselj'  as  their  lengths  ;  that  is, 
if  a  berfm  10  feet  long-  will  support  1000  pounds,  a  similar  beam  20  feet  long 
would  support  only  500  pounds. 

A  beam  supported  at  one  end  will  sustain  only  one-fourth  part  the  weight 
which  it  would  if  supported  at  both  ends. 

When  a  beam  is  fixetl  at  both  ends,  and  loaded  in  the  middle,  it  will  bear 
one-half  more  than  it  will  when  loose  at  both  ends.  When  the  beam  is  load- 
ed uniformi}'  throughout  it  will  bear  double.  Whe.n  the  beam  is  fixed  at 
both  ends,  and  loaded  uniformly,  it  will  bear  triple  the  weight. 

In  any  beam  standing  obliquely,  or  in  a  sloping  direction,  its  strength  or 
strain  will  be  equal  to  that  of  a  beam  of  the  same  breadth,  thickness,  and 
material,  but  only  of  the  length  of  the  horizontal  distance  between  the  points 
of  support. 

In  the  construction  of  beams,  it  is  necessary  that  their  form  should  be 
such  that  they  will  be  equally  strong  throughout.  If  a  beam  be  fixed  at  one 
end,  and  loaded  at  the  other,  and  the  breadth  uniform  throughout  its  length, 
then,  that  the  beam  may  be  equally- strong  throughout,  its  form  must  be  that 
of  a  parabola.     This  form  is  generally  used  in  the  beams  of  steam  engines. 

When  a  beam  is  regularly  diminished  towards  the  points  that  are  least 
strained,  so  that  all  the  sections  are  similar  figures,  whether  it  be  supported 
at  each  end  and  loaded  in  the  middle,  or  supported  in  the  middle  and  load- 
ed at  each  end,  the  outline  should  be  a  cubic  parabola. 

When  a  beam  is  supported  at  both  ends,  and  is  of  the  same  breadth 
throughout,  then,  i/the  load  be  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  length 
of  the  beam,  the  line  bounding  the  compressed  side  should  be  a  semi-ellipse. 

The  same  form  should  be  made  use  of  for  the  rails  of  a  wagon-way, 
where  they  have  to  resist  the  pressure  of  a  load  rolling  over  them. 

Similar  p/a?es  of  the  same  thickness,  either  supported  at  the  ends  or  all 
round,  will  carry  the  same  weight  either  uniformly  distributed  or  laid  on 
similar  points,  whatever  be  their  extent. 

13 


146  STRENGTH     OF    MATERIALS GRIER. 

The  lateral  strength  of  any  beam,  or  bar  of  wood,  stone,  metal,  &c.,  is  hi 
proportion  to  its  breadth  multiplied  b}'  its  depth^.  In  square  beams  the 
lateral  strengths  are  in  proporlion  to  tlie  cubes  of  the  sides,  and  in  general 
of  like-sided  beams  as  the  cubes  of  the  similar  sides  of  the  section. 

The  lateral  strength  of  any  beam  or  bar,  one  end  being  fixed  in  the  wall 
and  the  other  projecting,  is  inversely  as  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  the 
section  acted  upon  ;  and  the  strain  upon  any  section  is  directly  as  the  dis- 
tance of  the  weight  from  that  section. 

The  absolute  strength  of  ropes  or  bars,  pulled  lengthwise,  is  in  proportion 
to  the  squares  of  their  diameters.  All  cylindrical  or  prismatic  rods  are 
equally  strong  in  every  part,  if  they  are  equally  thick,  but  if  not  they  will 
break  where  the  thickness  is  least. 

The  strength  of  a  tube,  or  hollow  cylinder,  is  to  the  strength  of  a  solid 
one  as  the  difference  between  the  fourth  powers  of  the  exterior  and  interior 
diameters  of  the  tube,  divided  by  the  exterior  diameter,  is  to  the  cube  of 
the  diameter  ol  a  solid  cylinder, —  the  quantity  of  matter  in  each  being  the 
same.  Hence,  from  this  it  will  be  found,  that  a  hollow  cylinder  is  one-half 
Stronger  than  a  solid  one  having  the  same  weight  of  material. 

The  strength  of  a  column  to  resist  being  crushed  is  directly  as  the  square 
of  the  diameter,  provided  it  is  not  so  long  as  to  have  a  chance  of  bending. 
This  is  true  in  metals  or  stone,  but  in  timber  the  proporlion  is  rather  greater 
Ihan  the  square. 

MODELS  PROPORTIONED  TO  MACHINES. 

The  relation  of  models  to  inachines,  as  to  strength,  deserves  the  particu 
jar  attention  of  the  mechanic.  A  model  may  be  perfectly  proportioned  in 
all  its  parts  as  a  model,  yet  the  machine,  if  constructed  in  the  same  propor- 
tion, will  not  be  sufficiently  strong  in  every  part;  hence,  particular  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  kind  of  strain  the  different  parts  are  exposed  to;  and 
from  the  statements  which  follow,  the  proper  dimensions  ol  the  structure 
may  be  determined. 

If  the  strain  to  draw  asunder  in  the  model  be  1,  and  if  the  structure  is  8 
times  larger  than  the  model,  then  the  stress  in  the  structure  will  be  8''  equa' 
612.  If  the  structure  is  G  times  as  large  as  the  model,  then  the  stress  oi. 
the  structure  will  be  6-'  equal  216,  and  so  on  ;  therefore,  the  structure  will  be 
much  less  firm  than  the  model ;  and  this  the  more,  as  the  structure  is  cube 
times  greater  than  the  model.  If  we  wish  to  determine  the  greatest  size 
we  ean  make  a  machine  of  which  w'c  have  a  model,  we  have, 

The  greatest  weight  which  the  beam  of  the  model  can  hear,  divided  by 
the  weight  which  it  actually  sustains  equal  a  quotient  which,  when  multi- 
plied by  the  size  of  the  beam  in  the  model,  will  give  the  greatest  possible 
size  ol  the  same  beam  in  the  structure. 

Ex. — If  a  beam  in  the  modfl  be  7  inches  long,  and  bear  a  weight  of  4  lbs. 
but  is  capable  of  bearing  a  weight  of  2G  lbs. ;    what  is   the  greatest  length 
which  we  can  make  the  corresponding  beam  in  the  structure  ?     Here 
2G  -f-  4  =  C-5,  therefore,  6-5x7=  45  5  inches. 

The  strength  to  resist  crushing,  increases  from  a  model  to  a  structure  in 
proporlion  to  their  size,  but,  as  above,  the  strain  increases  as  the  cubes; 
wherefore,  in  this  rase,  also,  the  model  will  be  stronger  than  the  machine, 
and  the  greatest  size  of  the  structure  will  be  found  by  employing  the  square 
root  ol  the  quotient  in  the  last  rule,  instead  of  the  quotient  itself;  thus, 

If  the  greatest  weight  which  the  column  in  a  model  can  bear  is  3  cwt., 
and  if  it  actually  bears  28  lbs.,  then,  if  the  column  be  18  inches  high,  we  have 

V/(  -^  )  =  3-401 ;      wherefore  3-4G4  X  18  =  62-352 
iochcs,  the  length  of  the  column  in  the  structure. 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS — ADCOCK.  147 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

[From  Adcock's  Engineer.] 

List  of  metals,  arranged  according  to  their  strength. — Steel,  wrought- 
iron,  cast-iron,  platinum,  silver,  copper,  brass,  gold,  tin,  bismuth,  zinc,  anti- 
mony, lead. 

According  to  Tredgold's  and  Duleau's  experiments,  a  piece  of  the  best 
bar-iron  1  square  inch  across  the  end  would  bear  a  weight  of  about  77,373 
lbs.,  while  a  similar  piece  of  cast-iron  would  be  torn  asunder  by  a  weight 
of  from  16,243  to  19,464  lbs.  Thin  iron  wires,  arranged  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  presenting  a  surface  at  their  extremity  of  1  square  inch,  will 
carry  a  mean  weight  of  126,340  lbs. 

List  of  woods,  arranged  according  to  their  strength. — Oak,  alder,  lime, 
box,  pine  (s?//r.),  ash,  elm,  yellow  pine,  fir. 

A  piece  of  well-dried  pine  wood,  presenting  a  section  of  1  square  inch,  is 
able,  according  to  Eytclwein,  to  support  a  weight  of  from  15,646  lbs.  to 
20.408  lbs.,  whilst  a  similar  piece  of  oak  will  carry  as  much  as  25,850  lbs. 

Hempen  cords,  twisted,  will  support  the  following  weights  to  the  square 
inch  of  their  section  i 

i-inch  to  1  inch  thick,  8,746  lbs.;  1  to  3  inches  thick,  6,800  lbs.;  3  to  5 
inches  thick,  5,345  lbs.;  5  to  7  inches  thick,  4,860  lbs. 

Tredgold  gives  the  (bllowing  rule  for  finding  the  weight  in  lbs.  which  a 
hempen  rope  will  be  capable  of  supporting :  ftlultiply  the  square  of  the 
circumference  in  inches  by  200,  and  the  product  will  be  the  quantity  sought. 

In  the  practical  application  of  these  measures  of  absolute  strength,  that 
of  metals  should  be  reckoned  at  one-half,  and  that  of  woods  and  cords  at 
one-third  of  their  estimated  value. 

In  a  parallelopipedon  of  uniform  thickness,  supported  on  two  points  and 
loaded  in  the  middle,  the  lateral  strength  is  directly  as  the  product  of  the 
breadth  into  the  square  of  the  depth,  and  inversely  as  the  length.  Let  W 
represent  the  lateral  strength  of  any  material,  estimated  by  the  weight,  b  the 
breadth,  and  d  the  depth  of  its  end,  and  I  the  distance  between  the  points  of 
support ;  then  W  =  fd-b  -h  I. 

If  the  parallelopipedon  be  fastened  only  at  one  end  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, and  the  load  be  applied  at  the  opposite  end,  W  =  fd-b  -h  4/. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  three  dimensions,  6,  d,  and  /,  are  to  be  taken 
in  the  same  measure,  and  that  b  be  so  great  that  no  lateral  curvature  arise 
from  the  weight  ;/in  each  formula  represents  the  lateral  strength,  which 
varies  in  different  materials,  and  which  must  be  learnt  experimentally. 

A  beam  having  a  rectangular  end,  whose  breadth  is  two  or  three  times 
greater  than  the  breadth  of  another  beam,  has  a  power  of  suspension  re- 
spectively- two  or  three  times  greater  than  it ;  if  the  end  be  two  or  three 
times  deeper  than  the  end  of  the  other,  the  suspension  power  of  that  which 
has  the  greater  depth  exceeds  the  suspension  power  of  the  other,  four  or 
nine  times ;  if  its  length  be  two  or  three  limes  greater  than  the  length  of 
another  beam,  its  power  of  suspension  will  be  ^  or  1-3  respectively  that  of 
the  other  ;  provided  that  in  each  case  the  mode  of  suspension,  the  position 
of  the  weight,  and  other  circumstances  be  similar.  Hence  it  follows  that  a 
beam,  one  of  whose  sides  tapers,  has  a  greater  power  of  suspension  if 
placed  on  the  slant  than  on  die  broad  side,  and  that  the  powers  of  suspen- 
sion in  both  cases  are  in  the  ratio  of  their  sides ;  so,  for  instance,  a  beam, 
one  of  whose  sides  is  double  the  width  of  the  other,  will  carr^'  twice  as 
much  if  placed  on  the  narrow  side,  as  it  would  if  laid  on  the  wide  one. 

In  a  piece  of  round  timber  (a  cylinder)  the  power  of  suspension  is  in 
proportion  to  the  diameters  cubed,  and  inversel}'  as  the  length;  thus  a 
beam  with  a  diameter  two  or  tliree  times  longer  than  that  of  another,  will 
carry  a  weight  8  or  27  times  heavier  respectively  than  that  whose  diameter 
is  unity,  the  niode  of  fastening  and  loading  it  being  similar  in  both  cases. 


148  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS ADCOCK. 


The  lateral  streng-th  of  square  timber  is  to  that  of  a  tree  whence  it  is 
hewn  as  10  :  17  nearly. 

A  considerable  advantasje  is  frequently  secured  by  using  hollow  cylinders 
instead  of  solid  ones,  vvhicli,  with  an  e(|ual  expenditure  of  materials,  have 
far  greater  strength,  provided  only  that  the  solid  part  of  the  cylinder  be  of 
a  suflicicnt  thickness,  and  that  the  workmanship  be  good  ;  especially  that 
in  cast  metal  beams  the  thickness  be  uniform,  and  the  metal  free  from 
flaws.  According  to  Eytelwein,  such  hollow  cylinders  are  to  solid  ones  of 
equal  weight  of  metal  as  1.212:1,  when  the  inner  somi-diametcr  is  to  the 
outer  as  1  :  2  ;  according  to  Tredgold  as  17  :  10,  when  the  two  semi-diame- 
ters are  to  each  oUier  as  15  :  25,  and  as  2  :  1,  when  they  are  to  each  other  as 
7  :  10. 

A  method  of  increasing  the  suspensive  power  of  timber  supported  at 
both  ends,  is,  to  saw  down  from  i^  to  h  of  its  depth,  and  forcibly  drive  in  a 
wedge  of  metal  or  hard  wood,  until  the  timber  is  slightly  raised  at  the  mid- 
dle out  of  the  horizontal  line,  liy  experiment  it  was  found  that  the  suspen- 
sive power  of  a  beam  thus  cut  1-3  of  its  depth  was  increased  l-19th,  when 
cut  4  it  was  increased  l-29th,  and  when  cut  3-4th  through  it  was  increased 
l-87th. 

The  force  required  to  crush  a  body  increases  as  the  section  of  the  body 
increases  ;  and  this  quantity  being  constant,  the  resistance  of  the  body 
diminishes  as  the  height  increases. 

According  to  Eytelwein's  experiments,  the  strength  of  columns  or  tim- 
bers of  rectangular  form  in  resisting  compression  is,  as 

1.  The  cube  of  their  thickness  (the  lesser  dimension  of  their  section). 
2.  As  the  breadth  (the  greater  dimension  of  their  section).  3.  inversely  as 
the  square  of  their  length. 

Cohesive  power  of  Bars  of  Metal  one  inch  square,  in  Tons. 

Copper,  wrought      .     .      .     15.08 

Gun  metal 16.23 

Copper,  cast 8.51 


Iron,  Swedish  bar 29.20 

Do.,  Russian  bar 20.70 

Do.,  Englsh  bar  ....     .  25.00 

Steel,  cast 59.93 

Do.,  blistered 59.43 

Do.,  sheer 56.97 


Brass,  cast,  yellow    .      .      .       8.01 

Iron,  cast 7-87 

Tin,  cast 2.11 


RELATIVE  STRENGTH  OF  CAST  AND  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

It  has  been  found,  in  the  course  of  the  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Iloilg- 
kinsoii  ami  Mr.  Fairbiirn,  that  the  average  strain  that  cast  iron  will  bear  in 
the  waj'  of  tension,  before  breaking,  is  about  seven  Ions  and  a  half  per 
square  inch  ;  the  weakest,  in  the  course  of  IG  trials  on  various  descriptions, 
bearing  6  tons,  and  the  strongest  9  3-I'  tons.  The  ex])erimcnts  of  Telford 
and  i'rown  show  that  malleable  iron  will  bear,  on  an  average,  27  tons  ;  the 
weakest  bearing  21-,  and  the  strongest  29  tons.  On  ap])roarhing  the  break- 
ing point,  cast  iron  may  snap  in  an  instant,  without  any  previous  symptom, 
while  wrought  iron  begins  to  stretch,  with  half  its  breaking  weight,  and  so 
conlimies  to  stretch  till  it  breaks.  The  experiments  of  Ilodgkinson  and 
Fairbairn  show  also  that  cast  iron  is  capable  of  sustaining  compression  to 
the  extent  of  nearly  50  tons  on  the  s(iuare  mrli  ;  the  weakest  bearing  36iJ 
tons,  and  the  strongest  60  tons.  In  this  respect,  malleable  iron  is  nmch  in- 
ferior to  cast  iron.  With  12  tons  on  the  S(|uare  inch  it  yields,  eontracis  in 
length,  and  expands  laterally;  tlmugh  it  will  bear  27  tons,  or  more,  without 

actual  fracture. 

■ 

Rcnnie  stalos  that  cast  iron  may  be  crushed  with  a  weight  of  93,000  lbs., 
and  brick  with  one  of  5G2  lbs.  on  ilic  square  inch. 


STRENGTH    OF   BEAMS. 


149 


STRENGTH    OF    BEAMS. 
[From  Lowndes'  Engineer's  Hand-book, — Liverpool,  I860.] 

SOLID,   KECTANGULAR,   AND   ROUND  :    TO   FIND   THEIR   STRENGTH 

Square  and  rectangular. 
(Depth  ins.)2  x  Thickness  ins 


Length,  ft. 


-  X  Tabular  No.  =  Breaking  weight,  tons. 
Round. 


(Diameter  ins.)3       „,  .    .     »t  ^      ,  . 

-^f nr^ — TT-^  X  1  abuiar  No.  =  Breaking  weiffht,  tons. 

Length  in  ft.  s>        b    > 


Hollow. 
(Outside  dia.  ins.)^  —  (Inside  dia.  ins.) 


tons. 


Length,  ft. 


X  Tabular  No.  =  Breaking  weight 


Thickness  not  exceeding  (    ^  .^"'=''/°^  'f""-      2  ins.  for  iron        3  ins.  for  iron. 
°  (    3  ins.  for  wood.     6  ins.  for  wood.    12  ms.  for  wood 


Square  and  Rectangular. 


Cast  and  Wrought  Iron 

1 

•85 

•7 

Teak  and  greenheart 

•36 

•32 

•26 

Pitch  pine,  and  Cana^ 

dian  oak     .... 

•25 

•22 

•18 

Fir,  red  pine,  and  Eng- 

lish oak      .... 

•18 

•16 

•13 

Round. 


Cast  and  Wrought  Iron 
Teak  and  greenheart  . 
Fir  and  English  oak    . 


•8 

•28 

•14 


•68 
•25 
•125 


■56 

•2 

•1 


To  find  the  Breaking  Weight  in  lbs.  use  the  Tabular  No.  below. 


Thickness  not  exceeding  | 


1  inch  for  iron. 
3  ins.  for  wood. 


2  ins.  for  iron.    |   3  ins.  for  iron. 
6  ins.  for  wood.    12  ins.  for  wood. 


Square  and  Rectangular. 


Iron  .  . 
Teak  .  . 
Fir  and  oak 


2240 

1900 

1570 

800 

710 

570 

400 

355 

285 

13* 


150  BEAMS — CAST    IRON    FLANGED. 

Round. 


Iron 

1800 

1570 

1260 

Teak 

640 

570 

460 

Fir  and  oak    .... 

320 

285 

230 

Though  wrought  and  cast  iron  are  represented  in  these  rules  as  of  equal 
strength,  it  sliould  he  observed  tiiat  while  a  cast  iron  bar  1  inch  X  1  inch  X 
1  foot  0  inch  long,  of  average  quahty,  will  break  with  one  ton,  a  similar  bar 
of  wrought  iron  only  loses  its  elasticity,  and  deflects  1-lGth  of  an  inch,  yet 
as  it  can  only  carry  a  further  weight  by  destroying  its  shape  and  increasing 
the  deflection,  it  is  best  to  calculate  on  the  above  basis  : — 

y  1-lG  with  1    ton. 

A  wrought  iron  bar  1  in.  xl  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in.  long  C  deflects    1-8       "    I J    " 

>  2  1-2       "    2i    " 

The  above  rule  gives  the  weight  that  will  break  the  beam  if  put  on  the 
middle.  If  the  weight  is  laid  equally  all  over,  it  would  require  double 
the  weight  to  break  it. 

A  beam  should  not  be  loaded  with  more  than  1-3  of  the  breaking  weight 
in  any  case,  anil  as  a  general  rule  not  with  more  than  1-4,  for  purposes  of 
machinery  not  with  more  than  1-C  to  I -10  depending  oa  circumstances. 

Tojind  the  proper  size  for  any  given  purpose. 

Rectangular. 

Weight  X  Length  ft.  _  „         .         _    .  i-       ,       ■ 

■ ^.  T — ^1 — jvj^' X  o  or  4  or  6,  dec.  accordmg  to  circumstances  = 

Tabular  No.  '  " 

B  v^  ins. 

Round. 

^i/Weight  X  Length,  ft,  ^  „       '.       7~^  ~.       '       '.  ' 

V f„-r— I — 1VI      X  3  or  4  or  6,  &.C.  accordmg  to  circumstances 

1  abular  J\o.  '  ° 

=  diam.  ins. 


CAST   lEON   WITH    FE.1THEI19   OR  FL.\NGES  :    TO   FIND   THEIR  STRENGTH. 

Sec.  area,  bottom  flanse  ins.  X  depth  ins.       „       r.      .  ■  •  >     , 

— — 5 i     -7 X  2  =  Breaking  weight,  tons. 

Length  in  feel.  "        "    ' 

If  the  metal  exceeds  1  inch  in  thickness  deduct  l-8th. 

If  above  2  inches  deduct  I-4th. 

This  description  of  beam  is  of  the  strongest  form,  when  the  sectional  area 
of  the  bottom  flange  is  six  limes  that  of  the  top  flange. 

In  designing  this  description  of  beam,  the  bdttoni  flange  may  be  from  1-2 
to  1  1-2  the  depth  of  beam;  the  top  flange  from  I-l  to  l-;{  the  width  of 
ihc  bottom  one,  and  2-3  lo  1-2  the  thickness  of  it ;  the  feather  being  made 
al  the  top  a  little  thicker  than  the  top  (lange,  increasing  to  the  bottom  to 
nearly  the  thickness  of  the  bottom  flange  ;  in  this  way  avoiding  any  sud- 
den vari.'itiou  in  the  ihirkiiess  and  saving  weight ;  many  cngiiw^ers,  however, 
prefer  keeping  tlic  same  tliickn(?ss  throughout  in  cverv  part.  The  verti- 
cal brackets  for  slilfening  the  girilor  shouhl  not  be  ma<le  straight,  but  l;ol- 
lowed  out  soriielhing  like  llie  sketch,  as  thus  they  are  much  less  liable  lo 
crack,  and  all  the  corners  should  be  well  filled  in. 

In   most  cases  it   is  necessary  that  tliu  beam    should    be    of  uniform 


STRENGTH    OF    BEAMS. 


151 


depth  throughout ;  it  will,  however,  save  weight,  without  diminishing  the 
strength  of  the  beam,  if  the  width  of  the  bottom  flange  be  reduced  very 
considerably  towards  the  ends  ;  1-2  of  the  width  of  the  middle  being  quite 
sufficient;  care  being  taken  to  maintain  a  sufficient  surface  for  bearing, if 
the  beam  has  to  be  carried  on  a  wall. 

Fig.   1. 


L 


WROUGHT   IRON   BEAMS. 

Girders. — The  sketch  shows  a  very  strong  form  for  this  description  of 

firder,  when  rolled  solid.       The   top 
ange  being  condensed  and  square  is 
in  a  good  form  to  resist  compression  ; 
the  bottom  flange  has  a  wider  surface 
to  rest  on,  and  the  middle  rib  is  light ; 
an  experimental  beam  of  this  description  8  ins.  deep  and  11  feet  long  re-- 
quiring  5  tons  to  break  it. 
'J'he  top  flange  should  have  a  sectional  area  1  1-2  times  that  of  the  bottom. 
When  thus  proportioned  ; 

Sec.  area  top  flange,  ins-  X  depth  ins.       _       „      ,  .  -  , .  • 

-^ ihT"~t X  5  =  Breaking  weight  in  tons. 

This  is  an  inferior  shape.  Pig-  4. 

In  such  a  beam  the  top  flange  should  have  an  area 
1  3-4  that  of  the  bottom  flange. 

When  thus  proportioned : 
Sec.  area  top  flange  ins.  x  depth  ins. 


weight,  tons. 


Length  feet. 


X  4  =  Breaking 


Beams  of  the  above   forms,  made  of  plates  and  of  L  iron,  are  of  equal 


strength  with   the  above 


care  being  taken  to  make 


the  bottom  flang^e  of 


double  plates,  with  joint  plates  over  the  butts,  allowing  a  little  extra  area 
in  the  bottom  to  conipcnsaio  for  the  rivet  holes,  though  this  is  not  necessary 
if  they  are  rivetted  up  by  steam. 


152 


STRENGTH    OF   BEAMS. 


^VRO^QHT   IRON    BEAMS. 


Fis.  5. 


Hollow  Girders. — The  sketch  represents  the  form 
for  hollow  girders  combining  the  greatest  strength 
witii  tlie  least  weight,  the  top  being  in  the  best  form 
for  resisting  compression. 

Tlic  proportion  of  the  bottom  sectional  area  to  that 
of  the  top  should  be  as  11  to  12,  or  4-5  ;  and  the  sides 
should  be  well  stiffened  with  angle  iron,  to  keep  them 
from  buckling ;  the  sectional  area  of  the  top  and  bot- 
tom may  be  reduced  at  the  extremities  to  1-3  of  the 
area  at  the  middle,  without  diminishing  the  strength  of 
the  beam. 

When  thus  proportioned ; 
Section,  area  top,  ins.  X  depth  ins. 


Length 
weight,  tons. 


feet. 


X  5  =  Breaking 


An  experimental  beam  of  this  form,  75  feet  long  between  supports,  4  feet 
6  inches  deep,  with  6  cells  at  the  top,  about  6  inches  square  each,  with  a 
sectional  area  24'  sq.  ins.,  the  sides  stiffened  with  1  1-2  L  irons,  2  feet  apart, 
required  86  tons  to  break  it. 

Fis:.  6. 


In  the  plain  hollow  girder  the  top  should  have  a  sectional 
area  1  3-4  that  of  the  bottom. 

Thus  proportioned  : 

Section,  area  top,  ins.  X  depth  ins. 

Length  feet, 
tons. 


X  4  =  Breaking  weight 


Tojind  the  strength  of  a  round  girder. 

Sec,  area,  ins.  X  dia.  ins. 
Length  feet. 


=:  Breaking  weight,  tons. 


Tojind  the  strength  of  any  beam. 

If  the  top  flange  is  the  weakest,  find  the  compressive  breaking  strain  in 
Ions  per  square  inch  due  to  its  shape,  thickness,  and  length.     (See  Columns.) 

If  the  boitoni  is  the  weakest,  find  the  tcnsional  breaking  strain  of  the 
material  in  tons  per  square  inch. 

Then, 


Sec. 


.of 


weakest ^  flange  ^  breaking  strain,  tons  per  in.  X  depth  of  beam  (\.  X  ■* 

Length  between  supports,  feet. 
=  Breaking  weight,  tons. 

Tliis  rule  will  be  found  useful,  either  to  confirm  the  results  obtained  from 
the  previous  rules,  or  to  find  the  strength  of  any  beams  of  irregular  shn|)C 
not  included  in  them. 

The  mode  of  ascertaining  the  compre.ssion  and  tension  on  the  top  and 
bottom  flanges  of  beams  is  sufficiently  simple. 

Take  the  case  of  a  beam,  20  feel  long,  2  feet  deep,  with  a  weight  of  20 
tons  ou  the  middle  3  thfi  force  counteracting  this  weight  will  be   10  tons  on 


SOLID    COLUMNS. 


153 


each  end;  the  force  of  compression  at  the  top  in  the  middle  of  tlic  beam, 
and  that  of  tension  at  the  bottom,  taking  the  central  weight  as  the  fulcrum, 
will  be  just  in  proportion  to  the  leverage;  in  this  case,  as  10  to  2,  or  5  to  1. 
The  force  of  10  tons  applied  to  the  end  will  thus  result  in  a  force  of  oO  tons 
of  compression  and  tension  on  the  flanges  in  the  middle  of  the  beam.  Or 
in  a  simple  form, 

Weight,  tons  X   length,  feet        ^      . 

1\„  iu  f —   -^  A =  Strain  on  top  and  bottom  flanges,  tons, 

The  ultimate  compressive  strength  of  boiler  plate  iron  may  be  taken  at 
16  tons  per  square  inch,  the  tensile  strength  at  20  tons  per  square  inch;  and 
this  is  the  reason  why,  in  all  wrought  iron  beams,  the  top  requires  to  be  the 
strongest. 

But  as  in  cast  iron  the  compressive  strength  is  about  48  tons,  while  the 
tensile  strength  is  only  about  7  tons  per  square  inch,  the  bottom  flange  in 
cast  iron  girders  requires  to  be  much  the  strongest. 

The  fullest  information  on  this  subject,  and  the  experiments  in  detail, 
will  be  found  in  31r.  Eaton  Hodgkinson's  experiments  on  the  strength  of 
cast  iron  beams,  and  in  IVIr.  Edwin  Clark's  work  on  the  Britannia  and  Con- 
way tubular  bridges. 


SOLID    COLUMNS. 

Fail  by  crushing  with  length  under 5  diameters- 

Principally  by  crushing  from   ---------     g  to  15        " 

Partly  by  crushing,  partly  by  bending,  from       -     -     -    15  to  25        " 
Altogether  by  bending  above       -- --25         " 

Cast  iron  of  average  quality  is  crushed  with   -     -  49  tons  per  square  inch. 

Wrought  iron  of  average  quality  is  crushed  with  16    "  "  " 

Wrought  iron  is  permanently  injured  with  -     -     -  12     "  "  " 

Oak  wrought  is  crushed  with  --..--.  4    «  "  '' 

Deal  wrought  is  crushed  with  --..-.-  2    "  "  " 

The  comparative  strength  of  different  columns,  of  different  lengths,  will 
be  seen  very  clearly  from  the  following  table  derived  from  experiments  by 
Mr.  Hodijkinson : — 


Wrought  Iron  Bars. 

Proportion  of  Length 
to  Thickness. 

Gave  way  with 

Square. 

Length. 

ins. 

ft.  ins. 

IX  1 

n 

7^  to] 

21-7  tons  per  sq.  inch 

(( 

1     3 

15    to  1 

154 

(C 

2     6 

30    to  1 

113 

(C 

5     0 

60    to  1 

7-5 

cc 

7     6 

90    to  1 

4-3 

hx  h 

5     0 

120    to  1 

25 

(( 

7     6 

ISO    to  1 

1- 

To  find  the  strength  of  any  wrought  iron  column  with  square  ends. 

Area  of  column  sq.  inches  x  tons  per  inch  corresponding  to  proportion  of 
length,  as  per  table  above  =  Breaking  weight,  tons. 


154 


STRENGTH    OF    COLUMNS. 


If  the  ends  are  rounded,  divide  llie  final  result  by  3  to  find  the  breaking 
weight. 

In  columns  of  oblong  section,  the  narrowest  side  must  always  be  taken  in 
calculating-  the  proportion  of  height  to  width. 

To  find  the  strength  of  round  columns  exceeding  25  diameters  in  length. 
Mr.  Hodgkinson's  rule. 

(Diameter,  ins.)^-®       ,n  l   i     -i^t  t.      ■  •  •  ■ 

— -j i — ,.  ,,'       X   i  abular  No.  =  Breaking  weight,  tons. 

Length,  (t.  '  ^  &        *=    ' 


Wrought  iron 
Cast  iron 
Dantzic  oak 
Red  deal 


Rounded  or  Moveable 
Ends. 


26 

15 
1  7 
1-2 


A  column  should  not  be  loaded  with  more  than  1-3  of  the  breaking  weight 
in  any  case,  and  as  a  general  rule,  not  with  more  than  1-1 ;  for  purposes  o 
machinery  not  with  more  than  1-6  to  1-10,  according  to  circumstances. 


Tables  of  Powers  for  the  Diameters  and  Lengths  of  Columns. 


Diameter. 

1  in. 

3-6  Power. 

Diameter. 

3-6  Power. 

1- 

7  in. 

1102-4 

d 

2-2.3 

k 

1251- 

•i 

4-3 

d 

1413-3 

I 

75 

1 

1590-3 

2 

12  1 

8 

1782-9 

k 

1.8-5 

i 

1991-7 

h 

27- 

h 

2217-7 

I 

38-16 

1 

2461-7 

3 

52  2 

9 

2724-4    . 

\ 

69-63 

k 

3006-85 

.   4 

90-9 

h 

3309-8 

\ 

116-55 

i 

.  3634-3 

4 

147- 

10 

3981  07 

.} 

182-9 

k 

4351  2 

h 

22468 

h 

4745-5 

3 

272-96 

i 

5165- 

5 

.328-3 

11 

5610  7 

;■ 

.391-36 

^ 

6083-4 

, 

462-71 

^ 

65S4-3 

! 

TiV.Un 

% 

7114-4 

6 

6.32  91 

12 

7674-5 

h 

733-11 

h 

844  2S 

i 

967-15 

Length. 

1-7  Power. 

1 

1- 

2 

325 

3 

6-47 

4 

10  556 

5 

15-426 

6 

21-031 

7 

27-332 

8 

34-297 

9 

41-9 

10 

50  119 

11 

58-934 

12 

68-329 

13 

78  -289 

14     • 

8S-S 

15 

99  85 

16 

111-43 

17 

123-53 

18 

13()  13 

19 

149-21 

20 

162  81 

21 

176-92 

22 

191-18 

23 

206-51 

24 

222 

HOLLOW    COLUMNS. 


155 


HOLLOW  COLUMNS. 

Hollow  columns  fail  principally  by  crushing,  provided  the  length  does 
not  exceed  25  diameters;  indeed,  the  length  does  not  appear  to  affect  the 
strength  much  till  it  exceeds  50  diameters. 

The  comparative  strength  of  dilTerent  forms  and  of  different  thicknesses 
will  appear  so  distinctly  from  the  experiments  below,  made  by  Mr.  Hodg- 
kiuson,  that  no  difficulty  will  be  found  in  ascertaining  the  strength  due  to 
any  size  or  form  of  column  that  may  be  required. 

Square  Columns  of  Plate  Iron  Rivetted 
Columns  10  ft.  0  in.  long. 


Size. 


4  in.  X  4  in 
<< 


8  in.  X  8  in. 
(( 


Thick- 
ness. 


•03 

•06 

•1 

•2 

•06 

•14 

•22 

•25 


Proportion  of 
Thickness  to  Width, 


Proportion  of  Break'g  wei^hf 
Length       Tons  per  sq.  in. 


1 

TTJ3 
1 

1 

4(y 
1 

20 

X 

T3TJ 

] 

_1 

36 
1 


to  Width. 

of  section. 

30  to  1 

4-9 

(( 

8-6 

(( 

10^ 

(( 

12^ 

15  to  1 

6- 

(( 

9- 

<( 

ll-G 

(( 

12- 

Column  9  feet  0  inches  long. 

18  X   18  ! 

•5 

■^jj   practically 

5^4  to  1 

13-6 

Column  Id  feet  0  inches  long,  with  Cells. 

8  in.  X  8  in. 

•06 

■^^  of  width  of  cells 

15  to  1 

8^6 

To  find  the  strength  of  any  Hollow  Wrought  Iron  Column. 

T 

ea,  sq.  ins.  X 

Breaking  weight,  tons. 


o  •        ^  Tons  per  inch,  corresponding  to  the  proportions  of 

^^^-  ^'■®^'  ®^-  '"^-  ^        length  and  thickness  to  width  as  per  tables         " 


Columns  of  Oblong  Section. 

The  strength  of  these  may  be  ascertained  by  the  same  rule  as  that  of 
square  columns.  The  smallest  width  being  taken  in  calculating  the  pro- 
portion of  height  to  width,  while  the  longest  side  must  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration in  calculating  the  proportion  of  thickness  to  width. 

Column  10  feet  0  inches  long. 


Size. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Proportion  of 

Thickness  to 

greatest  Width. 

Proportion  of 

Length  to  least 

Width. 

Actual  Breaking 
Weight  Tons  per 
sq.  in.  of  Section. 

8in.  X4in. 

•06 

^^^ 

30  to  1 

6-78 

156 


STRENGTH    OF    COLUMNS. — CRANE. — PUMP. 


Round  Columns  of  Plate  Iron  Rivetted. 


Columns  10  ft 

.  0  in.  long. 

Same  Columns 
Reduced  in  Length. 

Dia- 

Thick- 
ness. 

Proportion 
of  thick- 
ness to 
Diameter. 

Proportion 
of  length  to 
Diameter. 

Breaking 
Weight. 

Tons  per 
sq.  ijich. 

Breaking  Weights. 
Tons  per  square  inch. 

5  ft.  0  in.  long. 

2  ft.  C  in.  long. 

u 

•1 

1 
X  & 

SOlol 

6-5 

13-9 

5-8 

2 

•1 

sV 

60  to  1 

10-35 

14^8 

16^5 

2^ 

•1 

?v 

48tol 

13-3 

15-6 

16-3 

♦  2i- 

•24 

tV. 

48tol 

9-6 

156 

16^ 

24- 

•21 

tV 

46  to  1 

9-9 

13- 

17- 

3 

•15 

jV 

40tol 

12-36 

IS- 

16-5 

4 

•15 

fV 

30tol 

12-34 

IS- 

6 

•1 

1 

20tol 

15- 

17- 

186 

6 

•13 

tV 

20tol 

lS-6 

It  would  seem  from  this  that  a  thickness  of  1-48,  or  1-4  inch  in  thickness 
for  every  foot  in  diameter  is  a  good  proportion  for  this  kind  of  column. 

It  will  he  seen  from  lliesc  experiments,  that  it  is  the  proportion  of  tliick- 
ness  to  the  width  of  cell  wliich  regulates  the  strength  witlnn  certain  limils 
of  iieight. 

And  tliat  a  thickness  of  1-30  or  1-8  inch  for  every  1  inches  in  width  will 
give  the  highest  result  practicable  for  square  columns. 


CR.VNE. 

Tlie  strains  on  the  principal  parts  can  be  ascertained  with  great  ease  in 
the  following  manner— the  strength  iseing  proportioned  accordingly. 

To  find  tlie  strain  on  the  post. 

Weight  suspended,  tons  X   Projection,  feet       „,     .  ,-       . 

"iT-^  ,7^ : — i -j—i- ==  Strain  on  toi)  of  post,  tons. 

Height  of  post  ahove  ground,  feet  '        ' 

The  post  can  tlien  be  calculated  as  a  beam,  twice  as  long  as  this  height 
from  ground,  with  twice  the  weight  on  the  middle.     [See  Beams.'] 


COLD    WATER    PUMP. 

Usually  l-l-  of  cylinder  diameter  when  the  stroke  is  1-2  that  of  piston. 
1-3  "  '•  1-4 

To  find  the  proper  size,  under  nnij  rircumslancrs,  capable  of  supplying  twice 

the  quantity  ordinaritij  used  for  injection. 
Cub^ft.  water  per  hour  used  in  cylinder  in  form  of  steam  _  . 

Stroke  ofpuini),  ft.  X  strokes  permiimtc  ~  P      P 

in  square  feet. 


VELOCITY  OF    FANS. 


157 


FAN. 

Case  should  be  slrons;  and  heavy.     Bearings  long. 
Blades  and  arms  as  light  and  well  balanced  as  possible. 
Good  proportions  — 

Inlet  ^  ^  diameter  of  fan, 

Blades  =  5  diameter  of  fan  each  way, 

Outlet  =  area  of  blades. 

The  area  of  tuyeres  is  most  advantageous  when  made 
area  of  blades 

density  of  blast,  oz.  per  sq.  inch, 
and  it  should  not  exceed  double  this  size. 


TELOCITY   OF   FANS. 

TTie  best  Velocity  of  Circumference  for  different  Densities. 


Velocily  of  Circumference. 

Density  of  Blast. 

Feet  per  Second. 

Oz.  per  inch. 

170 

3 

ISO 

4 

195 

5 

205 

6 

215 

7 

A  speed  of  180  to  200  feet  per  second,  giving  a  density  of  4  or  5 
oz.,  is  very  suitable  for  smithy  fires. 

250  to  300  feet  per  second  is  a  proper  speed  for  cupolas. 

A  fan  4  feet  0  inch  diameter,  blade  1  foot  0  inch  square,  will  sup- 
ply 40  fires  with  1|  tuyeres  at  a  density  of  4  oz. 

To  find  the  Horse  Power  required  for  any  fan. 

Let  D  =  density  of  blast  in  oz.  per  inch. 

A  =  area  of  discharge  at  tuyeres  in  square  inches. 
V  =  velocity  of  circumference  in  feet  per  second. 

,-7;7^  X  D  X  A 

Then  iY__ =  EfTeclive  Horse  Power  required. 

963 

To  find  the  density  to  be  attained  with  any  given  fan. 

Let  D  =:  diameter  of  fan  in  feet. 

2 


Then 


aj. 


Density  of  blast  in  oz.  per  inch. 


120  X  d. 

Or  the  density  may  be  found   by  comparison  with  the  following 
table  :— 

14 


158 


FRICTION. —  CENTRIFUGAL    FORCE. 


Velocity  of  Circumference. 
Feet  per  Second. 

.   Area 

of  Nozzles. 

Dens 
Oz 

it)-  of  Blast. 
.  per  inch. 

150 

Twice 

area  of  blades 

1 

150 

Equal 

ditto 

2 

150 

1-2 

ditto 

3 

170 

1-4 

ditto 

4 

200 

1-2 

ditto 

4 

200 

1-6 

ditto 

6 

220 

1-3 

ditto 

6 

To  find  the  quantity  of  air  that  tvill  be  delivered  by  any  Fan,  the 
density  being  known. 

Total  area  nozzles,  sq.  ft.  X  velocity,  ft.  per  minute  corresponding 
to  density  (as  per  table)  =  Air  delivered,  cubic  ft.  per  minute. 


Density. 

Velocity. 

i           Density. 

Velocity. 

Oz.  per  Sq.  Inch. 

Feet  per  Minute. 

Lbs.  per  Sq.  Inch 

Feet  per  Minute. 

1 

5,000 

1 

20,000 

2 

7,000 

H 

24,500 

3 

8,600 

2 

28,300 

4 

10,000 

n 

31,600 

5 

11,000 

3 

44,640 

6 

12,25(1 

4 

40,000 

7 

13,200 

6 

49,000 

8 

14,150 

8 

56.600 

9 

15,000 

10 

63,200 

10 

15  800 

12 

69,280 

11 

16,500 

15 

78,000 

12 

17,300 

20 

89,400 

FRICTION. 

From  Mr.  Rennie's  Experiments. 

The  friction  of  metal  on  metal,  without  unguents. 
May  be  taken  at  1-6  of  the  weight  up  to  40  lbs.  per  sq. 


in. 


1-5 

Brass  on  cast  iron  1-4       " 
Wrought  on  cast  iron  1-3  " 
With  tallow  at 
"     olive  oil  at 


100 

"  800  " 

"  500  " 

MO  of  the  weight. 
1-13 


800  lbs.  per  inch  forces  out  the  oil. 
Fiiction  ol  journals  under  ordinary  circumstances  1-30  of  weight. 
"  well  oiled,  sometimes  only        1-60        " 


CENTRIFUGAL     FORCE. 
(Revolutions  per  min.)"  X  dia.  in  ft.  X  weight 


in  terms  of  weight. 


5870 


=  Centrifugal  force 


PEDESTAL,    BRACKET. TEMPERING.  159 

PEDESTAL  —  BRACKET. 

PEDESTAL. 

Good  proportions. 
Thickness  of  cover  -4    of  diameter  of  bearing. 

of  sole  plate      -.3  "  " 

Diameter  of  bolts  -25  "  "  if  2. 

"  <<  -18  "  "  ifthereare4. 

Distance  between  bolts  twice  diameter  of  bearing. 

BRACKET. 

Solid.     Met.il  round  brass  equal  to  1-2  diameter  of  bearing. 

General  thickness  web,  &c.  equal  to  1-4  diameter  of  bearing. 
With  feathers.     Width  at  lightest  equal  to  diameter  of  bearing. 
Tiiickness  equal  to  1-6  " 


TEMPERING. 

The  article  after  being  completed,  is  hardened  by  being  heated 
gradually  to  a  bright  red,  and  then  plunged  into  cold  water;  it  is  then 
tempered  by  being  warmed  gradually  and  equably,  either  over  a  tire, 
or  on  a  piece  of  heated  metal  till  of  the  color  corresponding  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  required,  as  per  table  below,  when  it  is  again 
plunged  into  water. 

Corresponiling  Temperature. 
A  very  pale  straw  .     430"     Lancets  ) 
Straw      -         -         -     450''     Razors    ^ 

Darker  straw  -         -     470'^     Penknives  )      All  kinds  of  wood  tools 
Yellow   -         -         -     490"^     Scissors       i  Screw  taps. 

Brown  yellow  -     500'=  i  Hatchets,  Chipping  Chisels, 

Slightly  tinged  purple  520"^  >      Saws. 
Purple    -         -         -     530 •^  5  All  kinds  of  percussive  tools. 
Dark  purple    -         -     550'^  >  g; 
Blue        -         -         -     570"5''P""°- 
Dark  blue        -         -     600°     Soft  for  saws. 

To  Temper  by  the  Thermometer. 

Put  the  articles  to  be  tempered  into  a  vessel  containing  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  cover  them,  of  Oil  or  Tallow;  Sand;  or  a  mixture  of 8 
parts  bismuth,  5  of  lead,  and  3  of  tin,  the  whole  to  be  brought  up  to, 
and  kept  up  at  the  heat  corresponding  to  the  hardness  required,  by 
means  of  a  suitable  thermometer,  till  heated  equally  throughout;  the 
articles  are  then  withdrawn  and  plunged  into  cold  water. 

If  no  thermometer  is  available,  it  may  be  observed  that  oil  cr  tallow 
begins  to  smoke  at  43C  or  straw  color,  and  that  it  takes  lire  on  a  light 
being  presented,  and  goes  out  when  the  light  is  withdrawn,  at  570'* 
or  blue. 

CASE    HARDENING. 

Put  the  articles  requiring  to  be  hardened,  after  being  finished  but 
not  polished,  into  an  iron  box  in  layers  with  animal  carbon,  that  is, 


160    HEAT. SOLDERING. BORING  AND  TURNING. 

horns,  hoofs,  skins,  or  leather,  partly  burned  so  as  to  be  capable  of 
being  reduced  to  powder,  taking  care  that  every  part  of  the  iron  is 
coinpletcly  surrounded  ;  make  the  box  tight  with  a  lute  of  sand  and 
clay  in  equal  parts,  put  the  wbole  into  the  fire,  and  keep  it  at  a  light 
red  heat  for  half  an  hour  to  two  hours,  according  to  the  depth  of  har- 
dened surface  required,  then  empty  the  contents  of  the  box  inio 
water,  care  being  taken  that  any  articles  liable  to  buckle  be  put  in 
separately  and  carefully,  end  in  first. 

Cast  iron  may  be  case  hardened  as  follows: — 

Bring  to  a  red  heat,  and  roll  it  in  a  mixture  of  powdered  ])russiate 
of  potash,  saltpetre  and  sal-anuuoniac  in  equal  parts,  then  plunge  it 
into  a  bath  containing  2  oz.  prussiate  of  potash,  and  4  oz.  sal-ammo- 
niac per  gallon  of  water. 


HEAT. 

EFFECTS   OF   HEAT 'AT   CERT.AIN    TEMPERATURES. — GrIER. 

Tin  and  Bismuth,  equal  parts,  melt  at  283  degrees,  Fahrenheit ; 
tin  melts  at  442  ;  polished  steel  acquires  straw  color  at  460  ;  bismuth 
melts  at  476  ;  sulphur  burns  at  560;  oil  of  tuipentine  boils  at  560; 
polished  steel  acquires  deep  blue  color  at  580  ;  lead  melts  at  594  ;  lin- 
seed oil  boils  at  GOO;  (luicksilvcr  boils  at  660  ;  zinc  melts  at  700;  iron, 
bright  red  in  the  dark  at  752  ;  iron,  red-hot  in  twilight  at  8S4 ;  led 
heat  fully  visible  in  daylight  at  1077  ;  brass  melts  at  3807  ;  copper 
melts  at  4587;  silver  melts  at  4717;  gold  melts  at  5237;  welding  heat 
of  iron,  from  12777;  welding  heat  of  iron,  to  13427;  greatest  heat  of 
smith's  foige  17327;  cast  iron  begins  to  molt  at  17977;  cast  iron 
thoroughly  melted  at  20577. 


SOLDERING. 

The  solder  for  joints  requires  to  be  of  some  metal  more  fusible  than 
that  of  the  substances  to  be  jointul. 

For  Copper,  usual  solder  6  to  8  parts  brass  to  1  of  zinc  ;  1  of  tin 
sometimes  added. 

A  slill  stronger  solder,  3  parts  brass,  1  of  x.inc. 

To  prepare  this  solder. — Melt  the  brass  in  a  crucible,  when 
melteil  add  in  the  zinc,  and  cover  over  for  2  ot  3  minules  (ill  the 
combination  is  ctrected,  tlien  pour  il  out,  over  a  bundle  of  Iwigs,  into 
a  vessel  of  water,  or  into  a  mould  composed  of  a  number  of  little 
cliatinels,  so  that  the  sohler  may  be  in  long  strips  convenient  for  use. 

Brass  tilings  alone  will  answer  very  well. 

To  braze  with  this  xoliler. —  Sci-.\\)c.  the  suil'accs  perfectly  clean, 
and  secure  the  flange  or  joint  carefully  ;  cover  the  surfaces  to  be 
brazed  with  borax  powder  moistened  ;  apply  the  solihu-,  and  melt  it 
in  with  the  llanie  of  a  clear  coki;  fire  from  a  snuth's  hearth  ;  partic- 
ular care  being  taken  not  to  burn  the  cuiqier. 


BORING    AND    TURNING. BRASS    CASTINGS. 


IGl 


Iron  and  brass  are  soldered  with  spelter,  which  is  brass  and  zinc  in 
equal  parts;  the  process  being  performed  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
above.  For  ironwork,  however,  sometimes  rather  differently  ;  the 
articles  aie  fixed  in  their  position,  and  the  solder  applied,  a  covering 
ot'loam  is  then  put  over  all  to  exclude  the  air,  the  work  thus  prepared 
is  then  put  into  the  fire  a  sufficient  time  to  melt  the  solder  in. 


BORING    AND    TURNING. 

The  best  speed  for  boring  cast  iron  is  about  7.^  feet  per  minute. 

For  drilling  about  10  or  11  feet  per  minute  is  a  good  speed  for  the 
circumference  of  the  tool.  For  a  1  inch  drill  40  revolutions  =  11 
feet  per  minute,  other  sizes  in  proportion 

For  turning,  the  proper  speed  for  the  circumference  is  about  15 
feet  per  minute. 

BRASS. 

COMPOSITIONS    OF   BRASS. 


Copper. 

Tin. 

Zinc. 

Watch-makers  brass 

1  part 

— 

2  parts 

German  brass 

1    « 



1    " 

Yellow  brass 

2    «' 

__ 

1    " 

Speculum  meta! 

2    " 

1  part 

Bell  metal 

3    " 

, 

Light  castings  and  small  bearings  .     .     . 

4    " 

i   " 

Ditto         a  little  harder       .... 

4    " 

h   " 

Heavy  castings 

6  to  7 

1   " 

Gun  met.il 

9    « 

The  addition  of  a  little  lead  makes  the  metal  more  easily  wrought, 
and  is  advantageous  when  the  work  is  not  intended  for  exposure  to 
heat. 


BEASS   CASTING. 

As  it  is  often  useful  to  engineers,  especially  abroad,  to  be  able  to 
cast  brass,  a  slight  description  of  the  process  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

The  ordinary  furnace  used  is  of  very  simple  construction. 

After  lighUng  the  fire,  put  the  pot  intended  for  use  bottom  upwards 
over  it,  so  as  to  warm  gradually  through.  As  soon  as  the  fire  is 
burned  well  through,  put  the  pot  into  its  place,  resting  the  bottom  on 
a  fire  brick  to  keep  it  off  the  bars,  and  filling  round  with  lumps  of 
coke  to  steady  it;  then  put  in  the  copper,  either  blocks  cut  up  into 
pieces  of  convenient  size,  or  if  this  is  not  to  be  had,  shest  copper 
doubled  up  ;  as  the  metal  sinks  down  add  more  copper  or  old  brass 
till  the  pot  is  nearly  full  of  melted  metal ;  now  add  the  tin,  and  when 
this  is  melted  and  mixed,  put  in  a  piece  or  two  of  zinc  ;  if  this  begins 
to  flare  add  the  rest  of  the  zinc  in,  stir  it  well  in,  lift  the  pot  off  at 

14* 


162  BRASS    CASTINGS. WEIGHT    OF    ROPE. 

once,  skim  the  rubbish  off  the  top,  and  pour  into  the  mould.  If, 
however,  it  does  not  tlare  up,  put  a  little  coal  on  to  excite  the  fire, 
and  cover  over  till  it  comes  to  a  proper  heat.  As  soon  as  the  zinc 
begins  to  flare,  add  in  the  rest,  and  take  the  pot  off  the  fire.  If  old 
brass  alone  is  melted  down  no  tin  is  required,  Lnt  a  small  quantity  of 
zinc.  If  part  copper  and  part  brass,  add  tin  and  zinc  in  proportion  to 
the  new  copper,  with  a  little  extra  zinc  for  the  biass. 

As  soon  as  the  boxes  are  run,  it  is  tbe  usual  custom  to  open  them 
at  once,  and  to  sprinkle  the  castings  with  water  from  tlie  rose  of  a 
watering  can,  this  has  the  effect  of  making  them  softer  than  they 
would  otherwise  be ;  the  boxes  are  then  emptied,  and  fresh  moulds 
made  while  fresh  metal  is  being  melted. 

When  the  casting  is  completed,  draw  the  bearer  forward,  and  let 
the  bars  all  drop,  so  that  the  furnace  can  be  eflectuallj-  cleared  from 
the  clinkers,  and  put  the  pot  among  the  ashes  to  cool  gradually. 

The  moulding  boxes  may  be  of  hard  wood,  well  secured  at  the 
corners,  either  bj-  dovetailing  or  by  strong  nails  and  iron  corner 
plates,  with  guides  to  keep  the  boxes  fair  with  one  another.  A  few 
cross  bars  in  the  top  box  help  to  carry  the  sand. 

Fresh  green  sand,  the  same  as  used  for  iron  founding,  mixed  with 
a  small  ijuantity  of  coal  dust,  about  one-twelfth  part,  should  be  sifted 
over  tlie  patterns  on  all  sides  to  the  thickness  of  about  an  inch,  the 
box  then  tilled  up  with  old  sand,  and  properly  rammed  up,  and  well 
pricked  to  let  the  air  and  gas  escape,  then  remove  the  patterns,  and 
dust  over  the  mould  with  a  little  charcoal  powder  from  a  bag,  or  with 
a  little  flour,  cover  over  the  box  again,  and  the  mould  is  ready  for 
pouring. 

For  long  articles,  spindles,  bars,  &c.,  make  a  good  airhole  at  the 
opposite  end  from  where  the  metal  is  poured,  incline  the  box  slightly, 
and  pour  the  metal  at  the  lower  end;  for  flat,  thin  and  sti-aggling  ar- 
ticles it  is  necessary  to  have  two  or  more  pouring  lioles,  and  to  till 
them  all  at  the  same  time. 

The  pots  generally  used  arc  the  Stourbridge  clay  pots,  and  black 
lead  pots,  both  kinds  being  made  of  various  sizes  up  (o  60  lbs. ;  the 
former  are  less  durable,  but  much  cliea|)er  than  the  latter,  they  re- 
quire to  be  carefully  hardened  by  gradual  exi)Osure  to  the  fire. 

Clay  pots  are  made  of  2  parts  raw  Stourbridge  clay  to  1  of  gas  coke 
pulverized  ;  well  mixed  up  together  with  water,  drieii  gently,  and 
slightly  baked  in  a  kiln. 

Hlack  load  pots  of  2  parts  graphite,  and  1  of  fireclay,  mixc<l  with 
water,  baked  slightly  in  a  kiln,  but  not  completely  until  required  for 
use. 

The  pots  are  made  on  a  wood  mould,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  in- 
side of  the  pot,  the  clay  being  plastered  round  it  to  the  thickness 
desired. 


ROPE. 

To  find  the  breaking  Weight  of  an  ordinary  Tarred  Ihnip  Rope. 

(Circumference,  ins.)^  h-  5  =  Hreaking  weight,  tons. 

A  rope  should  not  be  loaded  with  more  than  1-3  its  breaking  weight. 


WEIGHT  OF   ROPE. WEIGHT  OF  CASTINGS. 


163 


To  find  Weight  of  Rope  or  Tarred  Cordage. 

(Circumferenr.e  ins.)^  X  Length,  ft.  -~  2A  =  Weight,  lbs. 
Or, 

(Circumference  ins.)^  -j-  4  =  Weight,  lbs.  per  fathom. 

To  find  Weight  oj  Tarred  Hawser  or  Manilla  Rope. 
(Circumference  ins.)*  -^-  5  =  Weight,  lbs.  per  fathom. 

To  find  Weight  of  Hawser-Laid  Manilla. 
(Circumference  ins.)*  -h  6  =  Weight,  lbs.  per  fathom. 


WEIGHT. 

To  find  the  Weight  of  any  Casting. 

Width   in  \  ins.  X  Thickness  in  ^  ins.,  or   vice   versa,  -j-  10  X 
Length,  ft.  =  Weight,  lbs.  cast  iron. 

For  instance  ;   to  find  the  weight  of  a  casting  3;^  ins.  X  1|  ins.  X 
2  ft.  6  ins.  long. 

13  X  9  H-  10  =  11-7  X  2-5  =  29-25  lbs. 

This  rule  is  very  useful,  and  can  easily  be  remembered  in  the  fol- 
lowing form. 

Width  in  5  ins.  X  Thickness  in  ^  ins.  or  vice  versa,  cut  ofTl  figure 
for  decimal,  the  result  is  lbs.  per  foot  of  length. 

For  wrought  iron  add   l-20th  to  the  result ;  for  lead  add  1-2  ;  lor 
brass  add  l-7th;  for  copper  add  l-5th. 

To  find  the  Weight  from  the  Areas. 

Area,  sq.  ins.  X  Length,  ft.  X  3  1-7  =  Weight,  lbs.  cast  iron. 

Multiplier  for  Cast  iron  3*lo6  or  3  1-7. 

"  Wrought  iron       3-312  or  3  1-3. 

'*  Lead  4-854 

"  Brass  3  644 

"  Copper  3-87 

Or,  Area,  sq.  ins.  X  10  =  lbs.  per  yard  for  wrought  iron. 

To  find  the  Weight  in  cwts. 
Area,  sq.  ins.  X  Length,  ft.  -j-  31-9  =  Weight,  cwts.  cast  iron. 
For  wrought  iron,  divide  by  33.6. 


WEIGHT   OF   BOILER   PLATES. 


Thickness,  ins. 

1 

i 

3 

i 

tV 

f 

■/f 

i  i 

1 

^ 

1 

Weight,  lbs.  per 
sq.  ft. 

2-5 

5 

7-5 

10 

12-5 

15 

17-5 

20  25 

30 

35 

40 

For  cast  iron  deduct  l-20th. 


164 


CONTINUOUS    CIRCULAR   MOTION. 


To  find  Weight  oj  Boiler  Plates  in  cwts. 

Area  sq.  ft.  „,  .   . 

=  Weight   cwts. 

No.  corresponding  to  thickness  °     ' 

in  table  below. 


Thickness. 

Divisor. 

Thiclsness. 

Divisor. 

Thickness. 

Divisor. 

In. 

In. 

In 

1 

22-4 

t 

7-5 

5 

4-48 

t\ 

15- 

tV 

6-3 

f 

3-73 

i 

11-2 

^ 

5-G 

^ 

3-2 

t\ 

9- 

9 

5- 

1 

2-8 

CONTINUOUS    CIRCULAR    MOTION. 

In-  mechanics,  circular  motion  is  transmitted  by  means  of  wheels, 
drums,  or  pulleys;  and  accordingly  as  the  driving  and  driven  are  of 
equal  or  unequal  diameters,  so  are  equal  or  unequal  velocities  pro- 
duced. Hence  the  principle  on  which  the  following  rules  are  founded. 

1.     When  time  is  not  taken  into  Account. 

Rule. — Divide  the  greater  diameter,  or  number  of  teeth,  by  the 
lesser  diameter  or  number  of  teeth  ;  and  the  quotient  is  the  number 
of  revolutions  the  lesser  will  make,  for  one  of  the  greater. 

Example. — How  many  revolutions  will  a  pinion  of  20  teeth  make, 
for  1  of  a  wheel  with  125  .' 

12.5  -^  20  =  6.25  or  6^  revolutions. 

To  find  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  last,  to  one  of  the  first, 
in  a  train  of  wheels  and  pinions. 

Rule. — Divide  the  product  of  all  the  teeth  in  the  driving  by  the 
product  of  all  the  tcelh  in  the  driven  ;  and  the  quotient  equal  the 
ratio  of  velocity  required. 

Example  1. — Required  the  ratio  of  velocity  of  tlie  last,  to  1  of 
the  first,  in  the  following  train  of  wheels  and  pinions;  viz.,  pinions 
driving — the  first  of  which  contains  10  teeth,  the  second  15,  and 
third  18.     Wheels  driven  first,  15  teeth,  second,  25,  and  third,  32. 

10  X  15  X  18 

— 1 -—  =  -225  of  a  revolution  the  wheel  will  make  to  one  of  the 

15  X  25  X  32 

pinion. 

Example  2. — A  wheel  of -12  teeth  giving  motion  to  one  of  12,  on 
which  shaft  is  a  pulley  of  21  inches  diameter  driving  one  of  (i;  required 
the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  last  pulley  to  one  of  the  first  wheel. 

42  X  21 

— —  =  12.25  or  12  J  revolutions. 

iZ  X  0 

NiiTE. — Wlicre  increase  or  decrease  of  vclocily  is  required  lo  be  coininuni- 
calfd  by  wlieel-work,  it  Iia8  lieen  deinonstrnted  thai  llic  number  of  leeih  on  eai^h 
pinion  Hhoiild  not  l)c  less  than  1  to  0  of  its  wheel,  unless  there  be  some  other  im- 
portant rcusoii  for  u  higher  rulio. 


CONTINUOUS  CIRCULAR    MOTION.  165 


2.     When  Time  must  be  regarded. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  diameter  or  number  of  teeth  in  the  driver, 
by  its  ivelocity  in  any  p;iven  time,  and  divide  tlie  product  by  the  re- 
quired velocity  of  the  driven;  the  quotient  equal  the  number  of  teeth 
or  diameter  of  the  driven,  to  produce  the  velocity  required. 

Example  1. — If  a  wheel,  containing  84  teeth,  makes  20  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  how  many  must  another  contain,  to  work  in  contact, 
and  make  60  revolutions  in  the  same  time  ? 

84  X  20  -=-  60  =  28  teeth. 

Example  2.  — From  a  shaft  making  45  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  with  a  pinion  9  inches  diameter  at  the  pitch  line,  I  wish  to  trans- 
mit motion  at  15  revolutions  per  minute  ;  what,  at  the  pitch  line,  must 
be  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  ? 

45  X  9  -7-  15  =  27  inches. 

Example  3. — Required  the  diameter  of  a  pulley  to  make  16  rev- 
olutions in  the  same  time  as  one  of  24  inches  making  36. 

24  X  36  -=-  16  =:  54  inches. 

TTie  distance  between  the  centres  and  velocities  of  two  wheels 
being  given,  to  find  their  proper  diameters. 

Rule. —  Divide  the  greatest  velocity  by  the  least;  the  quotient  is 
the  ratio  of  diameter  the  wheels  must  bear  to  each  other. 

Hence,  divide  the  distance  between  the  centres  by  the  ratio  -\-  1  ; 
the  quotient  equal  the  radius  of  the  smaller  wheel ;  and  subtract  the 
radius  thus  obtained  from  the  distance  between  the  centres;  the  re- 
mainder equal  the  radius  of  the  other. 

Example. — The  distance  of  two  shafts  from  centre  to  centre  is 
50  inches,  and  the  velocity  of  the  one  25  revolutions  per  minute,  the 
other  is  to  make  80  in  the  same  time  ;  the  proper  diameters  of  the 
wheels  at  the  pitch  lines  are  required. 

80  -^  25  =  3.2,  ratio  of  velocity,  and  50  h-  3.2  +  1  =  11.9  the  radius  of 
the  smallerwiiee);  then  50  —  11.9  =  38.1,  radius  of  larger;  their  diame- 
ters are  11.9  X  2  =  23.8  and  38.1  X  2=  76.2  indies. 

To  obtain  or  diminish  an  accumulated  velocity  by  means  of  wheels, 
pinions,  or  wheels,  pinions,  and  pulleys,  it  is  necessary  that  a  propor- 
tional ratio  of  velocity  should  exist,  and  which  is  thus  attained:  mul- 
tiply the  given  and  required  velocities  together;  and  the  square  root 
of  the  product  is  the  mean  or  proportionate  velocity. 

Example. — Let  the  given  velocity  of  a  wheel  containing  54  teeth 
equal  16  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  given  diameter  of  an  inter» 
mediate  pulley  equal  25  inches,  to  obtain  a  velocity  of  SI  revolutions 
in  a  machine  ;  required  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  intermediate 
wheel  and  diameter  of  the  last  pulley. 


V81  X  16  =  36  mean  velocity. 

54  X  16  ^  36  =  21  teeth  and  25  X  36  -h  81  =  11.1  inches,  diam.  of  pulley, 


166  CONTINUOUS   CIRCULAR    MOTION. 


To  determine  the  proportion  of  wheels  for  screw-cutting  by  a 
Lathe. 

In  a  lathe  properly  adapted,  screws  to  any  degree  of  pitch,  or 
number  of  threads  in  a  given  length,  may  he  cut  by  means  of  u  lead- 
ing screw  of  any  given  pitch,  accompanied  with  change  wheels  and 
pinions;  coar.-e  pitches  being  effected  generally  by  means  of  one 
wheel  and  one  pinion  with  a  carrier,  or  intermediate  tcheel,  which 
cause  no  variation  or  change  of  motion  to  take  place.  Hence  the 
following 

RuLK. —  Divide  the  number  of  threads  in  a  given  length  of  the 
screw  which  is  to  be  cut,  by  the  number  of  threads  in  the  same 
length  of  the  leading  screw  attached  to  the  lathe  ;  and  the  quotient 
is  the  ratio  that  the  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  screw  must  l)ear  to  that 
on  the  end  of  the  lathe  spindle. 

Example. — Let  it  be  required  to  cut  a  screw  with  5  threads  in 
an  inch,  the  leading  screw  being  of  h  inch  pitch,  or  containing  2 
threads  in  an  inch  ;  what  must  be  the  ratio  of  wheels  applied  ? 

5  -^-  2  =  2.5,  the  ratio  they  must  bear  to  each  other. 
Then  suppose  a  pinion  of  40  teeth  be  fixed  upon  for  the  spindle, — 
40  X  2.5  =  100  teeth  for  the  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  screw. 

But  screws  of  a  greater  degree  of  fineness  than  about  S  threads  in 
an  inch  are  more  conveniently  cut  by  an  additional  wheel  and  pinion, 
because  of  the  proper  degree  of  velocity  being  more  effectively  at- 
tained ;  and  these,  on  account  of  revolving  upon  a  stud,  arc  commonly 
designated  the  stud-wheels,  or  stud-wheel  and  pinion  ;  but  tlic  moile 
of  calculation  and  ratio  of  screw  are  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
rule.  Hence,  all  that  is  further  necessary  is  to  fix  upon  any  3 
wheels  at  pleasure,  as  those  for  the  spindle  and  stud-wheels;  then 
multiply  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  spindle-wheel  by  the  ratio  of  the 
screw,  and  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  that  wheel  or  pinion  which  is 
in  contact  with  the  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  screw  ;  divide  the  product 
!)y  the  stud-wheel  in  contact  with  the  spindle-wheel;  and  the  quotient 
is  the  number  of  teeth  required  in  the  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  lead- 
ing screw. 

Example.-  Suppose  a  screw  is  required  to  be  cut  containing  25 
threads  in  an  inch,  and  the  leading  screw,  as  before,  having  two 
threads  in  an  inch,  and  that  a  wheel  of  (iO  teeth  is  fixed  upon  for  the 
end  of  the  sj)indle,  20  tor  the  pinion  in  contact  with  the  sciew-wbeel, 
and  100  for  that  in  contact  with  the  wheel  on  the  t  nd  of  the  s|)indle; 
re(iuired  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  for  the  end  of  the  leading 
sciew. 

(10  X  12.5  X  20 
2.5  -i-  2  =  12.5,  and =  150  loelh. 

Or  su|)po-;i>  the  sjjindle  and  screw-wheels  to  be  those  fixed  upon, 
also  any  one  of  the  stud-wheels,  to  find  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 
other. 

GO  X  12  5        „^,        ,         GO  X  12.5  X  20       ,,_^ 

,-60-^oa  =  2«  ^-"''  '^^ m =  '''  ''-'■''■ 


CONTINUOUS    CIRCULAR   MOTION. 


167 


Table  of  Change  Wheels  for  Screw-cutting  ;  the  leading  Screw 
being  ^  inch  pitch,  or  containing  2  threads  in  an  inch. 


Numb,  of 

Number  of 

Number  of 

a 

teeth  in 

a 

w 

■a 

teeth  in 

■a 

teeth  in 

0  s 

0  »  1 

■^    1) 

■Si 

>.  to 

-3 

O 

o 
fcc 

an 

c 
■3. 

ll 

to 

1 

si 
si 

.=  2 

t-i 

m 

bo 

(U<« 

w  . 

o^ 

CO 

_  a 

"^  0 

aji- 

OD 

—  c 

-   Cj        r^r    . 

XI  O 

^.5 

31 

*-9  ^ 

SI 

^1 

0  ^J 

ll 

0  ^ 

•2  ° 
Z.H 

31 

1 

so 

40 

8i 

40 

55 

20 

60 

19 

50 

95 

20    100 

li 

so 

50 

8^ 

90 

85 

20 

90 

194 

SO 

120 

20    130 

u 

80 

60 

83 

60 

70 

20 

75 

20 

60 

100 

20    120 

ll 

80 

70 

9h 

90 

90 

20 

95 

20^ 

40 

90 

20      90 

2 

SO 

90 

9| 

40 

60 

20 

65 

21 

80 

120 

20    140 

2i 

SO 

90 

10 

60 

75 

20 

SO 

22 

60 

110 

20    120 

2^ 

80 

100 

10-^ 

50 

70 

20 

75 

22.i 

80 

120 

20    150 

2| 

SO 

110 

11 

60 

53 

20 

120 

22| 

80 

130 

20    140 

3 

SO 

120 

12 

90 

90 

20 

120 

232 

40 

95 

20    100 

H 

SO 

130 

12:1 

60 

85 

20 

90 

24 

65 

120 

20    130 

H 

80 

140 

13 

90 

90 

20 

130 

25 

60 

100 

20    150 

n 

80 

150 

13i 

60 

90 

20 

90 

251 

30 

85 

20   j  90 

4 

40 

80 

133 

80 

100 

20 

110 

26 

70 

130 

20    140 

4i 

40 

S5 

14 

90 

90 

20 

140 

27 

40 

90 

20    120 

4i 

40 

90 

Hi 

60 

90 

20 

95 

27i 

40 

100 

20    110 

4| 

40 

95 

15 

90 

90 

20 

150 

28 

75 

140 

20    150 

5 

40 

100 

16 

60 

80 

20 

120 

28i 

30 

90 

20  ;  95 

5i 

40 

110 

16.i 

80 

100 

20 

130 

30 

70 

140 

20    150 

6 

40 

120 

16i 

80 

no 

20 

120 

32 

30 

80 

20    120 

6i 

40 

130 

17 

45 

S5 

20 

90 

33 

40 

110 

20    120 

7 

40 

140 

174 

SO 

100 

20 

140 

34 

30 

85 

20    120 

7i 

40 

150 

18 

i  -1^ 

60 

20 

120 

35 
36 

60 

140 

20    150 

8 

30 

120 

181 

SO 

100 

20 

150 

30 

90 

20 

il20 

Table  by  which  to  determine  the  JVwjiber  of  Teeth,  or  Pitch  of 
Small  Wheels,  by  what  is  commonly  called  the  Manchester 
Principle. 


Diametral 

Circular 

Diametral 

Circular 

Pitch. 

Pitch. 

Pitch. 

Pitch. 

3 

1.047 

9 

.349 

4 

.785 

10 

.314 

5 

.628 

12 

.262 

6 

.524 

14 

.224 

7 

.449 

16 

.196 

8 

.393 

20 

.157 

168 


WHEELS   AND   GUDGEONS. 


Example  1. — Required  the  number  of  teeth  that  a  wheel  of  16 
inches  diameter  will  contain  of  a  10  pitch. 

16  X  10  =  160  teeth,  and  the  circular  pitch  =  .314  inch. 

Example  2.  —  What  must  be  the  diameter  of  a  wheel  for  a  9  pitch 
of  126  teeth  ? 

126  -f-  9  =  14  inches  diameter,  circular  pitch  .349  inch. 

Note. — The  pitch  is  reckoned  on  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  instead  of  the  cir- 
cumlerence,  and  designated  wheels  of  8  pitch,  13  pitch,  &c. 

Strength  of  the  Teeth  of  Cast  Iron  Wheels  at  a  given  Velocity. 


Strength  of  teeth 

in  horse-po 

wer  at 

Pitch 
of  teeth 

Thickness 
of  teeth 

Breadth 

of  teeth 

3  feet  per 

4  feet  per 

6  feet  per 

8  feet  per 

in  inches. 

in  inches. 

in  inches. 

second. 

second. 

second. 

second. 

3.99 

1.9 

7.6 

20.57 

27.43 

41.14 

54.85 

3.78 

1.8 

7.2 

17.49 

23.32 

34.98 

46.64 

3.57 

1.7 

6.8 

14.73 

19.65 

29.46 

39.28 

3.36 

1.6 

6.4 

12.28 

16.38 

24.56 

32  74 

3.15 

1.5 

6. 

10.12 

13..50 

20.24 

26.98 

2.94 

1.4 

5.6 

8.22 

10.97 

16.44 

21.92 

2.73 

1.3 

5.2 

6.58 

8.78 

13.16 

17.54 

2.52 

1.2 

4.8 

5.18 

6.91 

10.36 

13.81 

2  31 

1.1 

4.4 

3.99 

5.32 

7.98 

10.64 

2.1 

1.0 

4. 

3.00 

4.00 

6.00 

8.00 

1.89 

.9 

3.6 

2.18 

2.91 

4  36 

5.81 

1.68 

.8 

3.2 

1.53 

2.04 

3.06 

3.08 

1.47 

.7 

2.8 

1027 

1.37 

2.04 

2.72 

1.26 

.6 

2.4 

.64 

.86 

1.38 

1.84 

1.05 

.5 

2. 

.375 

.50 

.75 

1.00 

WHEELS   AND    GUDGEONS. 

To  find  size  oj  Teeth  necessary  to  transmit  a  given  Horse  Power. 

(Tredgold.) 

Horse  power  X  240 


Diameter  "'"  • 
t/    Strength 


=  Pitch,  ins. 


X  Revs,  per  min. 
Strength 


=  Strength  of  tooth. 


Breadth,  ins. 


Breadth,  ins.  ' (Pitch,  ins.)-* 

The  above  rule  will  be  found  very  suitable  for  a  speed  of  circum- 
ference of  about  240  feet  per  minute.  For  speeds  above,  add  to  240 
half  tlic  dinTereiice,  for  speeds  lielow,  deduct  lialf  the  did'crence,  be- 
tween 2  JO  and  the  actual  speed,  the  result  being  a  suitable  multiplier. 

For  in-itance  ;  at  300  ft.  per  minute,  60  being  the  diflcrenco,  240  -}- 
30  =  270  multiplier. 

At  160  ft.  per  minute,  80  being  the  dilTercncc,  240  —  40  =  200 
multiplier. 


"WATER. 


169 


The  reason  being,  that  with  iiio-her  speeds,  the  friction,  wear,  and 
liability  to  shocks  is  increased,  at  lower  speeds  decreased,  and  the 
teeth  may  advantageously  be  proportioned  accoidingly. 

To  find  the  Horse  Power  that  any  Wheel  will  transmit. 
(Pitch,  ins.)*  X  Breadth,  ins.  X  Diameter   ft.  X  Revs,  per  minute 

Appropriate  No.  according  to  speed,  as  above. 
=  Horse  Power. 

To  find  the  multiplying  number  for  any  Wheel. 
(Pitch,  ins.)2  X  Breadth,  ins.  X  Diameter  ft.  X  Revs,  per   minute 

Horse  Power 

=  Multiplying  No.  as  above. 

To  find  the  size  of  Teeth  to  carry  a  given  load  in  lbs. 
Load,  lbs.  —  1120  =  Breaking  strength  of  teeth. 
Load,  lbs.  -f-  2S0  =  Strength  for  very  low  speeds,  and   for  steady 

work;  being  4  times  the  breaking  strength. 
Load,  lbs.  -~-  140  =  Strength   for  ordinary  purposes  of  machinery  ; 

being  8  times  the  breaking  stiength. 

Load,  lbs.  -=-  100  =  Strength  for  high  speeds,  and  irregular  work  ; 
or  when  the  teeth  are  exposed  to  shocks. 

As  before. 

Strength 


(Pitch,  ins.)' 


=  Breadth 


i/    Strength 

,  ins.  V    ^.  ^- 

Breadth,  ins. 


Pitch,  ins. 


WATER. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  Water  that  will  be  discharged  through  an 
orifice,  or  pipe,  in  the  side  or  bottom  of  a  Vessel. 

Area  of  orifice   so  in    X  ^  ^°-    corresponding    to  height  of  surface 

'    ^'      '       \  above  orifice,  as  per  table 

=  Cubic  feet  discharged  per  minute. 


Height  of 

Surface  above 

Orifice. 

Multiplier. 

\     Height  of 
Surface  above 
Orifice. 

Multiplier. 

Height  of 

Surface  above 

Orifice. 

Multiplier. 

Ft. 

1 

2-25 

I           Ft. 

i          18 

9-5. 

Ft. 
40 

14-2 

2 

3-2 

20 

,     10- 

1         45 

151 

4 

4-5 

22 

10-5 

i         50 

16- 

6 

5-44 

24 

II- 

60 

17-4 

8 

64 

26 

11-5 

70 

18-8 

10 

7  1 

28 

12- 

!         80 

20-1 

12 

7-8 

30 

123 

90 

21-3 

14 

84 

32 

ll7 

100 

22-5 

16 

<*• 

35 

13-3 

15 


170  WATER. 

To  find  the  size  of  hole  necessary  to  discharge  a  given  quantity  of 
Water  under  a  given  head. 

Cubic  ft.  water  dischaiged  »  ^     ./- 

ivf ^1^      -    JT^-  w      ^ .  1,1    "=  Area  of  onnce,  sq.  in. 

jNo.  corresponding  to  height,  as  per  table  ^ 

To  find  the  height  necessary  to  discharge  a  given  quantity  through 

a  given  orifice. 

Cubic  ft.  water  discharged        ^^  ,    .  , 

— ; — ;- =  No.  corresp.  to  height,  as  per  table. 

Area  ontice,  sq.  inches.  o    >       r 

The  velocity  of  Water  issuing  from  an  orifice  in  the  side  or  bottom 
of  a  vessel  being  ascertained  to  be  as  follows  : 

-^Height  ft.  surface  above  orifice  X  5-4  =  i  Velocity  of  water,  ft. 
°  (  P^""  second. 

^Height  ft.  X  Area  orifice,  ft.  X  324  =  J    ^ubic  ft;^discharged  per 


^Height  ft.  X  Area  orifice,  ins.  X  2-2  =  Do.  Do. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  the  above  rules  represent  the  actual 
quantities  that  will  be  delivered  through  a  hole  cut  in  the  plate  ;  if  a 
short  pipe  be  attached,  the  quantity  will  be  increased,  the  greatest 
delivery  with  a  straight  pipe  being  attained  with  a  length  equal  to  4 
diameters,  and  being  l-.i  more  than  the  delivery  through  the  plain 
hole  ;  the  quantity  gradually  decreasing  as  the  length  of  pipe  is  in- 
creased, till,  with  a  length  equal  to  60  diameters  the  discharge  again 
equals  the  dischai'ge  through  the  plain  orifice.  If  a  taper  pipe  be 
attached  the  delivery  will  be  still  greater,  being  \h  times  the  deliv- 
ery thiough  the  plain  orifice  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  if  a  pipe  wi'.h 
curved  decreasing  taper  were  to  be  tried,  the  delivery  thiough  it 
would  be  equal  to  the  theoretical  discharge,  which  is  about  1-C5  the 
actual  discharge  through  a  plain  hole. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  Water  that  will  run  through  any  orifice, 
the  top  of  which  is  level  ivith  the  surface  oftvater  as  over  a  sluice 
or  dam. 


I /Height,  ft.  from  water  surface  to  hot-  )  ^  Area  of  water  )    ^   gig 
'       torn   of  orifice  or  top  of  dam  j       passage,  sq.  ft.  ) 

=  Cub.  ft.  discharged  per  minute. 

Or, 

Two-thirds  Area  of  water  passage,  sq.  ins    X  No.  corresponding  to 
height  as  per  table,  =  Cub.  ft.  discharged  per  minute. 

To  find  the  time  in  which  a  Vessel  will  empty  itself  through  a 

given  orifice. 


VHeight  ft.  surface  above  orifice  X   Area  water   surface,  sq.  ins. 

Area  orincc,  sq.  in.  X  ^7 
=  Time  required,  seconds. 

The  above  rules  are  founded  on  Bank's  experiments. 


MECHANICAL    TABLES 


FOR    THE    USE    OF 


OPERATIVE    SMITHS,   MILLWRIGHTS, 


AND 


ENGINEERS 


172        DIAMETERS    AND    CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    CIRCLES,, 


MECHANICAL    TABLES 

FOR   THE    USE    OF   OPERATIVE     SMITHS,    MILLWRIGHTS,    AND 

ENGINEERS. 

The  following  Tables,  originally  dedicated  to  '  the  JVational  Asso- 
ciation of  the  Forgers  of  Iron  Work,'  England,  by  James  Fo- 
DEN,  will  be  found  extremely  useful  to  Smiths,  generally,  and 
are  accompanied  by  Practical  Examples. —  Templetox. 
DIAMETERS   AND   CIRCUMFERENCES   OF    CIRCLES. 


Diam. 

c 

re. 

Diam. 
III. 

Circ. 

Diam.j    Circ. 

Diam 

Circ. 

Diam 

Circ. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.     In. 

Ft.  Iii.'fi. 

In. 

Ft.  In 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  In  'fi.     111. 

1 

0 

H 

5.^ 

1      5i 

0   10      2 

7| 

1     2f 

3 

9i 

1      6^ 

4  Hi 

IJ 

0 

3i 

5| 

1     5t 

1     2.^ 

1  3 

9h 

1     7 

4  111 

H 

0 

H 

55 

1     6 

0  lOJ    2 

73 

1     2i 

3 

H 

If 

0 

H 

H 

1     61 

0  10:J'  2 

8i 

1     23 

3 

m 

1  n 

5   0 

li 

0 

^ 

6 

1     6| 

0  10|    2 

Si 

1     2-^ 

3 

log 

1  n 

5    0| 

ll 

0 

5 

0  10^    2 

8| 

1     3 

3 

11 

1     7| 

5     05 

l| 

0 

5i 

6J 

1  n 

0  101;  2 

9f 

1     7.^ 

5     1^ 

H 

0 

5fe 

6.i 

1  ^s 

0  lOi  2 

n 

1     31 

3  114 

1  n 

5     It 

2* 

0 

6i 

6| 

1     8 

0  10| 

2 

101 

1     3i 

3 

m 

I  73 

5     2 

64 

1     S§ 

0  11 

2 

104 

1     3| 

4 

o\ 

1  75 

5     2| 

2i 

0 

n 

6§ 

1     85 

1     34 

4 

n 

1     8 

5     23 

H 

0 

7 

H 

1     9i 

0  llj 

2 

10| 

1     3| 

4 

1 

21 

0 

n 

^« 

1     94 

0  11-J    2 

lli 

1     33 

4 

n 

1     SI 

5     3J 

24 

0 

n 

7 

1  yj 

0  11|    2 

llg 

1     3} 

4 

n 

1     H 

5     31 

24 

0 

8i 

. 

0  11^    3 

0 

1     4 

4 

2i 

1     83 

5     4 

21 

0 

H 

7J 

1  10| 

0  11|    3 

04 

1     84 

5     4J 

2& 

0 

9 

7.i 

1  103 

0  ll.i   3 

OS 

1     4i 

4 

n 

1     8| 

5    41 

3 

0 

9s- 

n 

1  llj 

0  115    3 

li 

1     4i 

4 

3 

I     83 

5     5^ 

u 

1    Uh 

1     0 

3 

n 

1     4g 

4 

3i 

1     SI 

5     5i 

3i 

0 

n 

7| 

1  111 

1      1.^ 

4 

33 

1     9 

5    5i 

3.i 

0 

lOJ 

7.| 

2     0:J 

1     OJ    3 

2 

1     4g 

4 

44 

H 

0 

10.^ 

n 

2     0| 

1     OJ    3 

25 

1     43 

4 

1     91 

5     G| 

sd 

0 

lOJ 

8 

n 

1     Og    3 

2S 

J     f^ 

4 

5 

1     9j 

5     6 

3j 

0 

113 

1     O.^t  3 

3.i 

1     5 

4 

5| 

1     98 

5     7 

3? 

0 

115 

8J 

2   u 

1     0|]  3 

3g 

1  94 

5     7,i 

3; 

oj 

8i 

2     li 

1     03    3 

4 

1     5J 

4 

53 

1     96 

5    8 

4 

oi 

8g 

2     2.^ 

1     OJ    3 

4i 

1     5i 

4 

64 

1     93 

5     8| 

8i 

2     2g 

1     1      3 

45 

1     5i 

4 

6A 

1    yj 

5     8.^ 

4ji 

05 

8| 

2     3 

I     54 

4 

6S 

i  10 

5     9 

4i 

l.i 

8.^ 

2     3g 

1     IJ    3 

"^i 

I     56 

4 

78 

4i 

n 

8J 

2    :ij 

1     l.i    3 

n 

1     5.3 

4 

73 

1  ini 

5     94 

4d 

21 

9 

2     4i 

1      li    3 

6 

1     55 

4 

81 

1  lo.i 

5     9S 

.1 

24 

1     14    3 

62 

I     6 

4 

84 

1   10| 

5  lOi 

21 

9i 

2     4g 

1     1|    3 

6ii 

1  104 

5  10| 

^ 

'i\ 

f'i 

2     5 

1     1.4'  3 

7i 

1     6i 

4 

8J 

I  lol 

5  11 

6 

^ 

y| 

2     5g 

1  n  3 

51 

I     6i 

4 

9.i 

1  103 

5  llf 

y-i 

2     5i{ 

I  2  3 

1     63 

4 

n 

1  10  J 

6  llj 

H 

4 

!>3 

2     fii 

1     64 

4 

10 

1  11 

6     Oi 

H 

43 

}>ii 

2     68 

1     2i    3 

83 

1     Gg 

4 

log 

6 

■n 

n 

2     7 

1     2.1    3 

8.H 

1     6:{ 

4 

105 

1  UJ 

6     Oft 

DIAMETERS    AND    CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    CIRCLES. 


17' 


Diam.     Circ.     Diam.     Circ. 


Ft.  In. 

m 

111 

111 
112- 

2  0 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


0| 

1 


1* 
H 

13 

1| 
1* 


i| 

2| 

2| 
2| 


^1 

3| 

3| 

H 

3| 

07 

,4 


4* 
4| 
4| 
45 
4# 
4 


Ft. 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 

7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 

7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 


In. 
1 


Ft. 
o 


In. 


1|2 

1-1 

2J- 

25 
3 

31 


33 

45 

4i 

4 

6^ 
65 


61 
7^ 

85 

H 


10 

10| 
101 

Hi 

iif 

0 

0^ 

0| 

II 

2 

23 

23 
3J 
3^ 


H 
43, 

5i2 


5^ 
•■;3 
55 

n;5 


2  6 


6f 
65 


u 

73 
's 

75 

7-5- 


2  8 


8* 
Si 

8| 
85 
8^ 

83 
8J 
9 


9f 
9i 
•  9 

9^ 
9* 
9| 

QZ 
^8 

10 


5|2 
6^12 


lOi 
lOi- 


Ft. 
7 

7 

7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 

7 

7 
7 
7 

S 
8 
8 
8 

8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 

8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 

8 
8 
8 


m. 
6 


75 


9 

9^ 


lOi 

11' 

111 

lis 

Oi 

ol 

0| 

4 

1-! 

2J' 

25 

2| 
3i 
3| 
4* 
45 

4^ 
5i 

•^8 

6 

6h 

u 

n 


Diam.  Circ. 


.  In. 
lOf 

m 

10| 

103 

10| 

2  11' 


8| 
83 
9i 

91 
10 
10| 

103 

lU 

115 


Hi 
11a 

115 
11^ 
113 
11^ 

0^ 


0^ 
Oi 
Of 
Oi 

of 

01 

H 
1 

li 

If 

15 
If 
13 
11 

2' 


Ft. 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 

9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 

9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 

9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 


In. 

11^ 

8 
0^ 

03 

n 


H  9 

2il0 
2|10 
2510 
2f  10 
23  10 
2^10 
10 


3*10 
3il0 
3|10 
3510 

3*10 
3310 
3x10 


1^ 

^8 


2i 

^8 

3 
35 

3f 
4i 

^8 


51 


6| 


'8 

n 

9 

9| 

9: 
lOi 
105 
10| 
11^ 

113 

Oi 

0 

Oi 

1 


Diam.  Circ. 


2i 

2I 

3? 

3t 
4 

4.^ 

H 


In.^Ft. 
4  10 

4*10 
4il0 
43 

^8 


45 

4^ 

^8 

43 

42. 

5° 


10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


In 

5f 


6| 
63 

7-^ 

I* 

8^ 

84 


5*10 
5il0 
5|10 

5|10 
5310 

5*10 
6  10 


6* 
6i 

^*, 
6511 

6f  1 
631 

6*1 

7'il 

T*l 

73  ] 

8  , 

751 

7|1 
731 

7*1 

8  11 

8*1 
8|l 

85  1 
8|1 

84:1 
8|;i 

8*;i 

9  1 


9*;i 

9il 
9|1 


9i 

^8 
95 

^8 

10| 

103 

11* 

115 

lU 


"5 
0^ 

li 

15 
12- 

2 


^3. 

H 

4| 
5 

^r 
5i 

4 

65 

7 
7a 

'8 

n 

8* 
8| 

9i 


10* 
105 


Diam. 


Ft.  In. 
3  9.^ 


9^ 


circ. 


3  93 
3  91 
3  10 


3  101 
lOi 
3  lOf 
3  lOA 
3  lOf 
3  103 
3  101 
3  11' 


3  Hi 
3  llf 
3  115 
3  114 


3  11* 


Ft  In. 

11  1U| 

11  Hi 

11  uj 

12  0 
12  oi 


4  0 


12  4 

12  4t 

12  43 

12  5A 

12  55 

12  6 

12  64 

12  61 


01 12  7i 


Of 
05 


12 
12 

12 


■7-1 

71 

si 


It 

1^^ 

^8 
15 

I 

^8 

2 

2* 
2i 

2| 
25 

95 

--s 

23 
97 


12  83 

12  91 
12  95 
12  91 

12  lOi 
12  10| 
12  11 
12  lU 

12  11| 

13  Oi 
13  0| 
13  1^ 


13  li 

13  1* 

13  2| 

13  2| 

13  3 

13  3| 

13  3| 


15* 


174       DIAMETERS   AND   CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    CIRCLES. 


Diam.j    C 

re. 

Diam. 

Circ. 

Diam.     Circ. 

Diam. 

C 

re. 

D 

am.     Circ. 

Ft.  IiiJpt. 

In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft. 

III. 

Ft 

in.  Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft 

■  In.iFt.     In. 

4     3il3 

4* 

4     85 

14 

lOi 

■5 

2il6 

3A 

.>   H 

17 

yi 

6 

1|,19     24 

4     3^13 

5 

4     8f 

14 

m 

5 

2116 

3i 

5     8 

17 

H 

6 

1419     21 

4     3|13 

5| 

4     9 

14 

11 

5 

U 

16 

M 

6 

1119     3i 

4     3i^l3 

H 

5 

2f 

16 

H 

5     S^ 

17 

10 

6 

if 

19     3f 
19     4 

4     3|13 

4     9^ 

14 

"1 

5 

25 

16 

5^ 

5     81 17 

1C| 

6 

1| 

4     3^  13 

4     94 

14 

114 

5 

^ 

16 

H 

5     8|17 

10^ 

6 

2^ 

19     4| 

4     3113 

H 

4     9| 

15 

Oi 

5 

3 

16 

^ 

5     8il7 

lU 

4    4    13 

H 

4     9| 

15 

Of 

5     S%  17 

IH 

6 

2i 

19     43 

4     9| 

15 

1 

5 

3^ 

16 

6i 

5    s^ln 

111 

o| 

6 

24 

19     54 

4     4113 
4     4il3 

75 

4     9:1 

15 

If 

5 

34 

16 

H 

5     8118 

6 

2|19     o§ 
24!l9     6 

^8 

4     91 

15 

n 

5 

3| 

16 

7 

5     9    IS 

n 

6 

4     4|13 

^J 

4  10 

15 

H 

5 

3i 

16 

8^, 

6 

2f|19     63 

4     4<il3 
4     4|13 

8| 
9.1 

4  10^ 

15 

2i 

5 
5 

3f 
33 

16 
16 

5     91 18 
5     9|l8 

n 
i| 

6 
6 

2|l9     6| 
2|19     71 

4     4il3 

9f 

4  10! 

15 

n 

5 

31 

16 

**§ 

5     9|1S 
5     9%  IS 

n 

6 

3 

19     7i 

4     41:13 

10 

4  10| 

15 

3| 

5 

4 

16 

9 

2.i 

4     5  jl3 

10^ 

4  10| 

15 

H 

5     9|18 

2| 

6 

3^19     8 

1 

4  10f 

15 

4 

5 

^! 

16 

H 

5     9:i  18 

3 

6 

3419     8| 

4     5^Il3 

101 

4  10| 

15 

5 

16 

n 

5     91 18 

3k 

6 

8119     s! 
3419     9j. 

4     5^13 

lid 

4  101 

15 

4| 

5 

4f 

16 

101 

5  10 

18 

3| 

6 

4     5|  13 

lit 

4  1] 

15 

H 

5 

4l 

16 

lOf 

6 

3f,19     9; 

4     55(!I4 

0 

5 

4i 

4! 

16 

11 

5  101 18 

4.1 

6 

33:19     91 

4     5ll4 

Of 

4  IH 

15 

5| 

5 

16 

ii| 

5  104  18 

4| 

6 

31 19  10} 

4     5il4 

o| 

4  114 

15 

61 

5 

-•1 

16 

Hi 

5   10|1S 

5 

6 

4    19  103 

4     5114 

1^ 

4  11^ 
4  111 

15 

6i 

5 

5 

17 

H 

5  nM  18 

4    6" 

14 

if 

15 

?! 

5   10|lS 

6 

4i'l9  111 

4  lU 

15 

5 

5^ 

17 

n 

5  103  18 

6|6 

4il9  114 

4    6i 
4    6| 

14 

2 

4  113 

15 

"'i 

5 

H 

17 

1 

5  10118 

6^6 

4|19  111 
4*20     0;^ 

14 

2| 

4  111 

15 

8 

5 

a 

17 

n 

5  11    18 

7^  6 

4     6|14 

2.1 

5     0 

15 

8| 

5 

17 

n 

6 

4|  20     0| 

4     6il4 

3% 

5 

H 

17 

2i 

5  11^18 

^t<« 

n  20     1 

4     6|14 

5     0^ 

15 

8| 

5 

5il 

17 

2I 

5  11. J  18 

7^6 

4^20     l.i 

4     61  14 

4 

5     0.i 

15 

n 

5 

51 

17 

^ 

5  115  18 

816 

5    20     11 

4     61;  14 

41 

5     03. 
5     of 

15 

H 

5 

6 

17 

3.\ 

5  ll.| 

18 

8.^ 

0 

4     7    14 

4l 

15 

\Q 

5   114 

18 

9    6 

5^20     2: 

5     0| 

15 

103 

5 

6i 

17 

H 

5  11] 

18 

9:;  6 

5420     2| 

4     7^14 

5l 

5     0| 

15 

103 

5 

H 

17 

4% 

5  111 

18 

9:   6 

i>|  20     3 

4     7.1 14 

5     OJ 

15 

111 

ll| 

5 

Gi 

17 

■il 

6     0 

18 

10j^6 

H  20     3| 

4     7114 

H 

5     1 

15 

5 

6.J 

17 

54 

6 

5&  20     35 

4     7i  14 

6.i 

5 

6| 

17 

6     0^ 

18 

10.i6 

53  20     4\ 

4     n  14 

6.=i 

5     1* 

16 

0 

5 

6i 

17 

n 

6     01 

18 

10i;6 

5J20     4f 

4     73  14 

7i 
7A 

5     M 

16 

21 

5 

6J 

17 

6 

6    o;;- 

18 

Hi  6 

6  ,20     5 

4     7114 

5    i;; 

16 

5 

7 

17 

n 

6     OA 

18 

Hi 

4     8    14 

^1 

5     l.x 

16 

1^ 

6     0|l9 

»i  6 

6' 

20     51 

5    ]": 

lii 

li 

5 

7^ 

17 

6h^ 

6     03  19 

Oi  6 

6\  20     5| 

4     8^  14 

8i 

5     1?, 

16 

IJ 

5 

7{ 

17 

7.1 

6     0119 

016 

fiil  20     fii 

4     84  14 

^a 

5     11  16 

2.? 

5 

7;;- 

17 

'g 

6     1    19 

l.ifi 

6^  20     65 

4     8|  11 

9 

5     2 

16 

5 

ll 

17 

8 

|6 

1^20     7 

4     8^  14 

9i 

5 

T'i 

17 

si 

6     1^  19 

2  16 

63  20     73 

4     k|i4 

'4 

.5     2|16 

3| 

5 

7.1  17 

6     14  19 

H 

20     73 

DIAMETERS   AND    CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    CIRCLES.       175 


Diaia. 


176        DIAMETEKS    AND    CIRCUMFEHENCES    OF    CIRCLES. 


Diam.l    Circ.      Dia.  \    Circ.      Diam.     Circ 


DIAMETERS    AND    CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    CIRCLES.       177 


Diaxn.      Circum.      Diani.      Circum.  I  Diam. 


Ft  Ivi. 

11  2| 

11  2i 

11  3 


11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 


3^ 

^8 


3d 

H 

34 

^8 


Ft. 
35 
35 
35 

35 
35 
35 
35 


3f  35 

"   35 

35 

35 


11  41 

11  H 

11  4| 

11  H 

11  4| 

11    4i 
11  u 

11  5 

11 
11 
11 
11 
11 


5^ 

4 

5| 


In. 

n 


6 

U 


35  7| 
35  8 
35 
35 
35 

35  9h 
35  10 
35  10| 


H 


35 
35 

35 
35 
36 


10| 
lU 
llj 

'J* 


111.  I  Ft.  In. 

5i  36  0| 

Sff  26  1| 

6  36  Ij^ 


11 


11  7| 


8' 


36  6^ 


74 


Ft.  In. 

11  8| 

11  8| 

11  9 


11  91 

11  9i 

11  9| 

11  9i 

U  9| 

11  95 

11  9| 

11  10 

11  101 
11  10^ 
11  10| 
II  lOA 
11  lOf 
11  lOSi 
11  101 

11  11 


11 
11 
11 
11 
11 


1% 

Hi 
11^ 

^^8 

114 
iif 


circum.  I  Diam.      Circum 


Ft.  In. 

36  10| 

36  10.^ 

36  101 

36  111 

36  Hi 

37  01 


37 
37 
37 
37 
37 


li 

n 


37  2i 

37  21 
37  4 


37 
37 
37  4| 
37  4| 
37  5i 


37 
37 
37 
37 
37 


5^ 
6 

61 
71 

'8 


Ft.  In.  Ft.  Ill 
11  11.^  37  7h 
11  111  37  7| 


12  0 


37  61 


12  0^  37  8| 

12  0^  37  91 

12  0||  37  9| 

12  oil  37  91 


12  Of 

12  Oi 

12  01 

12  l' 


12  11 

12  H 

12  If 

12  14 

12  If 

12  li 
11 


12 
12 

12 
12 
12 
12 
12 


2^ 

P 
24 

21 


37  10:^ 
37  10| 
37  111 
37  114 

37  115 

38  Oi 
38  0| 
38  1 
38  If 
38  l| 
38  2i 
38  2| 


o ■~± o 2 = - o_ 

If  a  Hoop  of  larger  diameter  than  12  feet  is  required,  double  some  number. 

Observations  on    Tables    relating  to  the  Diameters  and 
Circumferences  of  Circles. 

I  do  not  intend  to  enter  into  any  labored  argument  to  prove  the  general 
utility  of  these  Tables,  as  their  simplicity  and  clearness  are  sufficient  to 
stamp  their  value  to  the  artist  and  mechanic.  It  will  be  clearly  perceived, 
on  inspection,  that  the  Table  commences  with  as  small  a  diameter  as  is  gen- 
erally used  in  hoops  and  rings,  viz.  one  inch,  and  increases  by  the  regular 
gradation  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  to  upwards  of  twelve  feet;  and  in  the 
column  marked  Circumference,  against  each  Diameter  stand  the  respective 
circumferences :  hence  all  that  is  necessary  on  inspecting  these  Tables  is  to 
enter  into  them  with  any  proposed  diameter  or  circumference,  and  an  answer 
to  the  inquiry  is  immediately  obtained. 

Example. — Required  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  the  diameter  being  8 
feet  7  7-8  inches  ? 

In  the  column  of  circumferences,  opposite  the  given  diameter,  stands  27 
feet  2:^  inches,  the  circumference  required. 

But  it  will  be  necessary  to  observe,  that  in  the  formation  of  hoops  tind 
rings  a  contraction  of  the  metal  takes  place.  Now,  the  just  allowance  for 
this  contraction  is  the  exact  thickness  of  the  metal,  which  must  be  added  to 
ihe  diameter. 

Ex. — In  making  a  hoop  whose  diameter  inside  is  6  feet  9  1-8  inches,  the 
thickness  of  the  iron  being  4  inch,  this  4  inch  must  be  added  to  the  given 
diameter,  which  will  make  it  6  feet  9  5-8  inches}  this  will  allow  1  5-8  inch 


178       DIAMETERS    AND   CIRCUMFERENCES    OF   CIRCLES. 

for  the  contraction  in  bending  in  a  hoo^  of  the  above  diameter,  pivinff  the 
circumference  or  length  of  iron  required  for  the  hoop,  21  feet  4  3-8  iiicnes. 

The  foregoing  example  appertains  to  the  formation  of  hoops  or  iron  bent 
on  the  flat;  but  in  the  formation  of  rings  or  iron  bent  on  the  edge,  the  same 
rule  must  also  be  followed,  only  taking  care  to  add  the  brtadlh  instead  of 
the  thickness.     As  for  example  : 

To  make  a  ring  whose  inside  diameter  is  8  feet  2.]  inches,  the  breadth  of 
the  iron  being  2^  inches ;  by  adding  the  2!^  inches  to  the  given  diameter, 
will  increase  it  to  8  feet  4|  inches  ;  opposite  to  this  diameter  in  the  column 
of  circumferences  stands  26  feel  4^  inches,  being  the  length  of  iron  necessary 
for  the  ring. 

The  foregoing  observations  relate  more  particularly  to  plain  hoops  and 
rings  ;  but  as  respects  the  hoops  that  are  on  the  wheels  of  radway  carriages, 
a  difference  must  be  observed,  which  is  as  follows :  These  hoops  having 
a  flange  projecting  on  the  one  edge  of  the  surface,  it  will  be  necessary,  in 
addition  to  the  thickness  of  the  metal,  to  add  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  tlie 
flange  to  the  diameter,  as  the  flange  side  would  contract  considerably  more 
than  the  plain  surface  ;  this  is  supposing  the  tires  are  in  a  straight  form,  but, 
in  general,  they  come  from  the  iron-works  in  a  curved  state.  In  the  latter 
case,  it  will  be  only  necessary  to  add  the  thickness  of  the  bare  metal,  as  the 
aforesaid  portion  of  the  thickness  of  the  flange  is  allowed  for  in  the  curve. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  curve  may  be  exactly  obtained,  by  using  four 
times  the  circumference  of  the  hoop  as  a  radius. 

If  the  tire  has  not  been  previously  curved,  it  may  easily  be  done  in  the 
operation  of  bending  ;  the  smith  must  pay  particular  attention  to  this,  or  he 
will  have  his  hoop  bent  in  an  angle. 

But  the  practical  utility  of  this  Table  is  not  confined  to  smiths  alone ;  to 
the  millwright  it  will  be  found  equally  useful  and  expeditious,  as  on  a  bare 
inspection  of  the  Table  he  may  ascertain  the  diameter  of  any  wheel  thaJ 
may  be  required  to  be  made,  the  pitch  and  number  o(  teeth  being  given. 

Ex. — Suppose  a  wheel  were  ordered  to  be  made  to  contain  sixty  teeth, 
the  pitch  of  the  teeth  to  be  3  7-8  inches,  the  dimensions  of  the  wheel  may  be 
ascertained  simply  as  follows; 

Multiply  the  pilch  of  the  tooth  by  the  number  of  teeth  the  wheel  is  to 
contain,  and  the  product  will  be  the  circumference  of  the  wheel ;  thus 

3^  inches  pilch  of  the  tooth, 
10  X  6  =  60  the  number  of  teeth, 

Feet     19    4J     the  circumference  of  the  wheel. 

However,  by  inspecting  the  column  marked  Circumference,  I  find  the 
nearest  number  to  this  is  19  feet  4  .3-8  inches,  which  is  the  cighlli  of  an  inch 
less  than  the  true  circumference  ;  but  if  this  1-8  were  divided  into  (JO  equal 
pirls,  it  would  not  make  the  difference  of  a  single  hair's-brcadln  in  the  size 
of  each  tooth  ;  so  that  it  is  sufficiently  near  for  any  practical  purpose.  The 
diameter  answering  to  this  circumference  is  6  feet  2  inches  ;  consequently, 
wilh  onc-h;ilf  of  this  number  as  a  radius,  the  circumference  of  the  wheel 
will  be  described. 

The  manner  in  which  the  foregoing  Table  of  Circumferences  is  found  is 
as  follows :  Taking  the  diameter  at  unity,  we  have  by  decimal  proportion 

in.    in. 
Asl  :31HG  ::  1-  :3141G, 

and  the  decimal   1  HG  multiplied  by  8,  gives  the  circumference  for  1  inch 
of  diaincler  3  1-8  inches. 

In  these 'Jables  tiie  number  S-HIG  is  divided  by  8,  which  gives  .3927 
Tb:H  decimal  [iroportion  has  been  used  as  a  constant,  and  tin- sum  niiiltiplicd 
by  8  gives  the  excess  above  the  decimal  value  in  cigluiis  of  an  inch 


CIRCUMFERENCES     FOR   ANGLED    IRON    HOOPS. 


179 


CIRCUMFERENCES    FOR    ANGLED    IRON    HOOPS. 

ANGLE  OUTSIDE. 


Diam. 

Circ. 

Diam.l  Circ. 

Diam 

Cin;. 

Diam. 

Circ. 

Diam.  Ciri'. 

Ft  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In.lFt.  In. 

Ft.  In 

Ft.  In. 

Fl.  In. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  In.  Ft.  In. 

6 

1  5i 

1  6 

4  4:1 

2  6 

7  31 
7  4| 

3  6 

10  3 

4  6  113  24 

i 

1  64 

4  51 

i 

i 

JO-  3| 

4'l3  3 

h 

1  7 

4  6^ 
4  61 
4  7| 

h 

7  5| 
7  4 

i 

10  4i 

413  3| 

1 

1  7| 

1 

i 

1 

10  54 

|13  4| 

4  7  13  5| 

413  51 

7 

1  8i 

1  7 

2  7 

7  6g 

3  7 

10  6 

i 

1  H 

i 

4  St 
4  91 
4  91 

4 

7  U 

4 

10  65 

h 

1  9| 

h 

i 

7  84 

4 

10  74 

413  6| 

1 

I  io| 

1 

* 

7  9 

1 

10  84 

3,13  7| 

8  :  1  HI 

1  8 

4  10| 

4  n| 

2  8 

7  9| 

3  8 

10  8| 
10  9| 

4  8 

13  8i 

i 

2  Oi 

i 

i 

7  lOi 

k 

4 

13  81 

h 

2  Oi 

h 

5  0 

h 

7  114 

h 

10  10| 
10  ll| 

10  ll| 
H  of 

11  l| 

4 

13  9| 

2  l| 

i 

5  0.^ 

1 

8  0 

I 

1 

13  104 

9  i  2  2| 

1  9 

5  1^ 

2  9 

8  0| 

3  9 

4  9 

13  11 

• 

2  3 

4 

5  24 

4 

8  1| 

4 

k 

13  111 

% 

2  3| 

i 

5  3 

d 

8  ■  2| 

^ 

4 

14  o4 

I 

2  .4i 

3 

5  3| 

1 

8  21 

1 

11  2' 

I 

14  U 

10 

2  5i 

1  10 

5  4f 
5  5! 
5  5| 
5  6| 

5  81 

2  10 

8  3| 

3  10 

11  25 

4  10 

14  2 

k 

2  6 

i 

4 

8  4 

8  5i 

8  si 

4 

11  34 

4 

14  2l 

h 

2  65 

1 

1 

<^ 

11  44 

4 

14  3i 

2  7.i 

1 

1 

11  5 

1 

14  4t' 

11 

2  Si 
2  8| 

I  n 

2  11 

8  6i 

3  ll'* 

11  55 

4  11 

14  4f 

1 

i 

i 

8  74 

4 

11  64 

4 

14  5{ 
14  6 

^ 

2  9| 

h 

5  81 
5  9| 

k 

8  8 

i 

11  7J 

4 

1 

2  lOl 
2  ll| 

% 

1 

8  81 

11  71 

11  s| 

14   7; 

I  0 

2   0 

5  104 

3  0 

8  94 

4  0 

5  0 

14  7 

k 

2  lU 

3  of 
3  l| 

i 

5  Jl 

4 

8  104 

4 

11  9f 
11  101 

11  101 

i 

14  S 

1 

5  111 

6  Oi 

1 

8  11 

8  Ilf 

9  of 
9  ll 
9  11 

1 

4 

I 

14  9] 
14  10 

1   1 

3  2 

2   1* 

6  U 

3  1 

4  1 

11  ll| 

5  1 

14  ]0| 

^ 

3  2| 

^ 

6  2 

4 

4 

12  04 

4 

14  114 

^ 

3  3i 

i 

6  2| 

1 

4 

12  1 

4 

15  04 

% 

3  44 

1 

6  3| 

1 

9  2| 

5 

12  1| 

1 

15  1 

1  2 

3  5 

2   2 

6  4J 

3  2 

9  3| 

4  2 

12  24 

5  2 

15  If 
15  2| 

i 

3  55 

i 

6  41 

i 

9  41 

4 

12  34 

4 

h 

3  6^ 

i 

6  5| 

1 

9  4| 

^ 

12  4 

4 

15  %■ 

% 

3  n 

3  7| 

1 

6  6| 

9  5J 

1 

12  45 

15  3, 

15   4^ 

15  5; 

1  3 

2   3 

6  74 

3  3" 

9  64 

4  3 

12  54 

5  3 

i    3  8|| 

^ 

6  11 

i 

9  7 

1 

12  6| 

4 

/ 

3  9| 
3  loj 

1 

6  8| 

h 

9  1% 

i 

12  6J 

4 

15  Gy 

1 

1 

6  94 

I 

9  8i 

i 

12  71 

1 

15  6^ 

1  4 

3  101 

2   4 

6  10 

3  4 

9  94 

4  4 

12  8| 

3  4 

15  7; 

1 

3  111 

^ 

6  ]0| 

;. 

9  91 

k 

12  9! 

4 

15  S 

i 

4  04 

•i 

6  11^ 

1 ; 

9  ]0| 

h 

12  91 

4 

15  9 

1 

4  1 

I 

7  04 

1 

9  ll| 

I 

12  lo| 

1 

15  9% 

1  5 

4  IS 

2   5 

7  1 

3  5 

10  o| 
10  01 

4  5 

12  114 

5  5  1 

15  104 

^ 

4  2i 

1 

7  11 

i 

4 

13  0 

415  114 

1 

4  34 

d 

7  2^ 

iio  1| 

^ 

13  0| 

4I16  0 

1 

4  4 

I 

7  3| 

§10  2| 

113  HI 

|ll6  Of 

180 


CIKCUMFERENCES     FOR   ANGLED    IRON    HOOPS. 


CIRCUxMFERENCES    FOR   ANGLED   IRON    HOOPS. 

ANGLE    INSIDE. 


Diam 

.     Circ. 

Diam.j    Circ. 

Diam 

Circ. 

Diam 

.     Circ. 

Diam.     Circ. 

Fi.  in 

.  Ft.     In 

Ft.  In.  Ft.     In 

.  Ft.  in 

Ft.     In 

Ft.  In 

Ft.    In 

.  Ft.  In.  Ft.    In. 

6 

1     S.J 

1      6      5     1| 

2     6 

8     6^ 

3     6 

11   111 

4     6    15     4| 

J 

\  1  n 

-          i    5     2.3 

i 

8     7A 

i 

12     Oj 

415     5| 

i 

1    10; 

\          i 

^    5     3^ 

h 

8     8| 

i 

12     1.3 

i  15    7, 

i 

E    1  H 

■       i 

E    5     4j 

I 

8     9J 

12     2| 

7 

I  Hi 

1     7 

5     5 

2     7     8  104 

3     7' 

12      3; 

4  7  15  8; 

i 

E    2     05 

; 

I    5     53 

4    8  U 

4 

12     4 

415     9j 

t 

2     1| 

> 

■    5     q\ 

A  8  \n 

d 

12     4^ 

A  15  10 

.1 

2     2^ 

i 

5     7i 

1    9     0| 
2     8      9     l.i 

3 

12     5| 

3il5  101 

8 

2     3| 

1     8 

5     8^ 

3     8 

12     6| 

4     8    15  ll| 

i 

2     44 

i 

5     9J 

i    9     2| 

4 

12     7i 

4  16    o| 

h 

2     5 

h 

5  lOi 

i    9     34 

d 

12     8| 

dl6     l| 

1 

2     52 

1 

5  11 

1    9     4i 

3 

12     94 

3!l6     2i 

9 

2   el 

1     9 

5  11^ 

2     9      9     5 

3     9 

12  10 

4     9 

16     3A 
16    4" 

i 

2     7| 

i 

6     0^ 

f    9     51 

4 

12  lOi 
12  ll| 

h 

2    8i 

d 

6     l| 

h    9     6j; 

•i 

16     41 

1 

2     9| 
2  lol 

a 

4 

6     21 

^ 

9     ll 

^1 

13     Of 

13   n 

3il6     5| 

10 

1  10 

6     34 

2  10 

9     8| 

3  10 

4  10 

16     6| 
16     7| 

k 

2  11 

i 

6     4J 

4 

9     94 

4 

13     2| 

4 

h 

2  1]| 

3  0| 

il 

6     5 

i 

9  lOi 

A 

13     34 

dll6     8i 

i 

I 

6     5Z 

.? 

9  11 

5 

13     4 

1 

16     9A 

11 

3  n 

1  11 

6     6.1 

2  11 

9  111 

3  11 

13     4| 

4  11 

16  10 

^ 

3     2| 

4 

6     7g 

410    o| 

4 

13     5| 

4 

16  lOJ 

jl 

3     3g 

i 

6     83 
6     9| 

d'lO     Id 

i 

13     6f 

A 

16  113 

1 

3     4i 

5 

^ 

10    25^- 

.^ 

13     U 

1 

17     0| 

I     0 

3     5 

2     0 

6  lOJ 

3     0 

10    34 

4    0 

13     8| 
13     94 

5     0 

17     lA 

^ 

8     51 

4 

6  11 

4 

10   4a 

4 

4 

17     2^ 

1^ 

3     61 

d 

6  in 

A'lO     5 

d 13  10  1 

d 

17     3| 
17     4" 

? 

3     71 

4 

7     0| 

310     5| 

I 

13  lOi 

1 

L     1 

3     8^ 

2     1 

7     Jg 

3     1    10     6| 

4     1 

13  115 

5     1 

17     Ax 

i 

3     9| 

i 

7     22 

410     7^ 

4  14    of 

417     5| 

d 

3  lol 

t 

7     3| 

ijio  ^ 

%\\0     9^ 

dli4    Id 

dl7     6| 

% 

3  11 

•^ 

7     4 

il4     2| 

1 

17     7T 

2 

3  115 

2     2 

7     5^ 

3     2    10  10^ 

4     2    14     3| 

5     2 

17     84 

4 

4     03 

4 

7     55 

410   11 

4  14     4 

4 

17     sf 
17  10^ 

d 

4     IS 

h 

7     6g 

i'lO  11.? 

^1-4     4| 

d 

1 

4     2i 

I 

7     7i 

\n    o| 

i 

14     53 

i 

17  lOj 

17  ui 

3 

4     3| 

2     3 

7     8g 

3     3    11     l| 

4     3 

14     65 

5   3 

^ 

4     4J 

4 

7     9-} 

411  n 

414    7a 

dl4     8| 
i'l4     9^ 

4 

18     Oi 

A 

4     5 

h 

7  10^ 

ill  34 

d 

18     l| 

1 

4     5J 

A 

7  ir 

■111   H 

3 

18     24 

4 

•1     i\i 

I     4 

7  ii-i 

3     4    11     5 

4     4    ] 

4  10 

5    4 

18     3i 

4 

4     7S 

;} 

8     0.3 

411     53 

;     1 

4   102 
4  11.^ 

4  18     4' 
|!18     4| 

4     8i 

^ 

8     li 

ilil    H 

.     ] 

1 

4     9g 

•1 

8     2* 

in   n 

i    15     Oft 

i  18     6: 

6 

4  K'^ 

}     5 

8   A 

3     5    11     81  - 

1     5  |15     Id 

5     5    18     6. 

:} 

4   11 

4 

8     4| 

411  94 

415     24 

418     7 

i 

4    Ul 

A 

8     5 

iiii  loA 

d  15    H 

4  18    8 

3 

5     0§ 

1 

8     bl 

3I11  102 

il5    4 

III8     9, 

CIRCUMFERENCES     FOR    ANGLED    IRON    HOOPS,  181 


Observations  on    Table  containing  the    Circumferences  foi 
Angled  Iron  Hoops. — Angle  Outside. 

As  this  Table  will  be  useful  to  those  smiths  who  chiefly  work  angled 
iron,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remark,  that  the  observation  made  on  Tables 
relatinst  to  the  Diameters  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  respecting  addmg 
the  thickness  of  the  iron  to  the  diameter,  must  be  attended  to  in  this,  with 
this  difference, — the  breadth  of  the  angle  must  be  added  to  the  diameter. 

Example. — Suppose  a  hoop  is  wanted  to  be  made  of  2^  inch  angled  iron, 
whose  diameter  inside  must  be  12  inches.  Here  the  2^  inches  must  be  add- 
ed to  the  12  inches,  which  raises  the  number  to  1  foot  2^  inches.  I-ooking 
into  the  Table,  I  find  the  circumference,  or  length  of  iron  requisite  for  the 
hoop,  is  3  feet  6:^  mches. 

Observations  on   Table   containing  the   Circumferences  for 
Angled  Iron  Hoops. — Angle  Inside. 

The  observations  respecting  this  Table  are  the  reverse  to  those  on  the 
preceding  one, — viz.  the  breadth  of  the  angle  must  be  taken  from  the  diam- 
eter,— for  tl>is  reason,  that  the  diameter  is  taken  from  outside  to  outside  of 
the  ring. 

Suppose  a  ring  is  to  be  made  of  angled  iron,  whose  diameter  outside  is  to 
be  12  inches,  the  breadth  of  the  angle  2^  inches;  then,  by  talking  2^  inches 
from  12  inches,  we  have  left  9.i  inches.  Looking  into  the  Table  in  the  col- 
amn  of  diameters,  I  find  in  the  circumference  column,  opposite  9^  inches, 
2  feet  8J  inches,  which  is  the  length  of  iron  necessary  for  the  ring. 

It  his  been  already  observed,  that  between  angled  and  plain  iron  a  con- 
siderable  diflerence  exists  with  regard  to  the  proportion  of  the  circumference 
to  the  diameter :  this  is  owing  to  the  angle  or  flange  on  one  side  of  the  bar, 
and  when  the  iron  is  formed  into  a  hoop  :  it  contracts  more  or  less,  as  the 
angle  or  flange  may  be  mside  or  outside  of  the  hoop.  From  repeated  ex 
periments  on  this  subject,  I  have  ascertained  that  the  proportions  of  the 
diameters  to  the  circumferences  are  as  follows  : — For  the  angle  inside  as 
1  :  3-4243,  and  for  the  angle  outside  the  hoop,  as  1  :  2-9312  : :  Diam  :  Circ'f. 

Problem — ^To  find  the  circumference  of  an  ellipse,  or  an  oval  hoop  or  ring. 

Rule. — Add  the  length  of  the  two  axes  together,  and  multiply  the  sum  by 
1-5708  for  the  circumference;  or  as  it  may  be  used  in  the  Table  of  Circum- 
ferences, take  half  the  sum  of  the  axes  as  a  diameter,  with  the  breadih  ot 
the  iron  added,  and  enter  the  Table  of  Circumferences  where  it  will  be  found. 

Ex. — Required  the  circumference  of  an  elliptical  hoop,  whose  axes  are 
18^  and  13  inches,  the  thickness  of  the  iron  being  2^  inches. 

ISi  -f  13  =  31i  -^  2  =  153  -f  21  =  18i  inches  the  diameter. 

Entering  into  the  Table  of  Diameter  with  18|  inches,  the  circumference 
will  be  found  to  be  4  feet  9j-  inches. 

In  constructing  elliptical  hoops  of  angled  iron,  with  the  angle  outside, 
reference  must  be  made  to  the  Tables  for  hoops  of  angled  iron ;  the  opera- 
tion will  be  similar  to  the  above  example.  Bui  in  hoops  where  the  angle  is 
inside,  the  thickness  of  the  iron  must  be  taken  from  halt  the  sum  of  the  axes. 

Note. — It  must  be  observed,  that  in  the  examples  given  in  the  Observa- 
tions on  Table  relating  to  the  Diameters  and  Circumferences  of  Circles, 
and  also  on  hoops  formed  of  angled  iron,  that  those  circumferences  are 
nothing  more  than  the  ends  of  the  iron  meeting  together;  therefore,  ever}- 
smith  must  allow  for  the  thickening  of  the  ends  of  the  metal  previous  to 
scarving  the  same  in  order  to  weld  it 

IG 


182       SHIP    AND    RAILROAD    SPIKES,  AND  HORSE  SHOE&- 


SHIP    AND    PvAILHOAD    SPIKES. 


NUMBER    OF    IRON    SPIKES    PER    100    POUNDS. 

Manufactured  by  Philip  C.  Page,  Mass.,  and  Sold  by  Page,  Briggs  & 

Babbitt,  Boston. 


Ship  Spikes 

or 
Hatch  Nails 

1-4  in.  sq're. 

Ship  SpikeS 

or 
Hatcli  Nails 

5-lG  in.  sq. 

Ship  Spikes 

or 
Deck    Nails 
3-8  in.  sq're. 

Ship  Spikes 

7-16 
inch  square. 

Ship  Spikes 

1-2 
inch  square. 

Ship  Spikes 

9-lG 
inch  square. 

Ship  Spikes 

5-8 
inch  square. 

size    Nil. 

size    No.  1 

,sizei  No. 

1 
size 

No.  1 

size 

No. 

size 

No. 

size]  No. 

in    1  0  0 

in    10  0 

in  |1  0  0 

in    10  0, 

in 

1  0  0 

in 

10  0 

in 

1  0  0 

inc    lbs. 

inc.   lbs.   j 

inc.   lbs. 

inc. 

lbs. 

inc. 

lbs. 

inc. 
8 

lbs. 

inc. 

lbs. 

3  jl900 

3 

1000 

4      540 

5 

340 

!6 

220 

140 

1   10 

80 

3^1.580 

3.i 

960  1 

4k    500 

5i 

310 

6.i 

200 

9 

120 

15 

60 

4  [1320 

4 

800, 

5      460 

6 

300 

7 

190 

10 

110 

— 

— 

4i  1220 

U 

600 

5i    420 

6* 

280 

n 

180 

11 

100 

— 

— 

5 

1020 

5 

680 

6      400 

7 

260 

8 

170 



— 

.  — 



— 

— 

6 

520  i 

6h    320 

1  u 

240 

Sh. 

160  1 

— 

— 

[ 

._ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

8  J 

220 

9 

150 

— 

— 

1 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

i  — , 

— 

10 

140 

— 

— 

— ■ 

Mail  Road  Spikes  9-16lhs  square  5.^  inches  160  per  100  pounds. 
Rail  Road  Spikes  1-2  inch     "       5.^      "       200  per  100  pound.s. 


BURDENS    PATENT    SPIKES    AND    HORSE    SHOES. 

Manufactured  at  the  Troy  Iron  and  Nail  Factory,  Troy,  New   York. 


Boat 

Spikes. 

Size   in 

No.  in 

inches. 

K)0  11)s. 

3 

1750 

84 

1468 

4 

1257 

44 

920 

5 

720 

H 

630 

6 

497 

64 

47S 

7 

S62 

n 

337 

8 

295 

84 

290 

9 

210 

10 

198 

COPPERS,    TUBING,    CAST    IRON    AND    STEEL. 


183 


COTFEB.S. —Dimensio7is  and  TT'ci 

ghlfrom  1  to  208  Gallons. 

Indies 

Weight 

Inches 

■Weight 

Inches 

Weight 

lag 

Gallons. 

m 

lag 

Gallons. 

in 

hie 

Gallons. 

in 

to    brim. 

pounds. 

ito    brim. 

pounds. 

to    brim. 

pounds. 

9\ 

1 

14 

24 

15 

224 

294 

29 

434 

Ui 

2 

3 

24* 

16 

24 

30 

30 

45 

14 

3 

44 

25 

17 

254 

32 

36 

54 

15i 

4 

6 

254 

IS 

27 

34 

43 

644 

16i 

5 

74 

26 

19 

28h 

35 

48 

72 

174 

6 

9 

26.^ 

20 

30 

36 

53 

794 

m 

7 

104 

26| 

21 

314 

37 

58 

87 

19h 

S 

12 

27 

22 

33 

38 

63 

944 

20| 

9 

134 

27i 

23 

34.1 

39 

67 

1004 

21 

10 

15 

274 

24 

36 

40 

71 

1064 

214 

11 

164 

27$ 

25 

374 

45 

104 

1.56 

22 

12 

18 

28 

26 

39 

50 

146 

219 

224 

13 

194 

2S4 

27 

404 

55 

208 

312 

234 

14 

21 

29 

28 

42 

COPPER    TUBING.  —  Weight  of  the  usual   Thicliness. 

When  the  inside  diameter,  is  |  of  an  inch,  3  ozs. ;  f  do.,  5  ozs.  \  ^io 
6  ozs. ;  I  do.,  8  ozs. ;  %  do.,  10  ozs.  per  foot. 


BRASS,    COPPER, 

STEEL    AND    LEAD.—  Weight  of  a 

Foot. 

BRASS. 

COPPER. 

STEEL. 

LEAD. 

Diam'ter 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

,'  Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

and  Side 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of  Sq're. 

Round. 

Square. 

Round. 

Square. 

j  Round. 

Square. 

Hound. 

Square. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Lbs.     j 

Lbs. 

Lb3. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

^ 

.17 

.22 

.19 

.24 

.17 

.21 

I 

..39 

.50 

.42 

.54  ' 

.38 

.48 

X 

.70 

.90 

.75 

.96 

.67 

.85 

. 

1.10 

1.40 

1.17 

1.50 

1.04 

1.33 

'  ■ 

1.59 

2.02 

1.69 

2.16 

1..50 

1.91 

I 

2.16 

2.75 

2.31 

2  94 

2.05 

2.61 

1 

2.83 

3.60 

3.02 

3.84 

2.67 

3.40 

3.87 

4.93 

u 

3.58 

4.56 

3.82 

4.86 

3.38 

4.34 

4.90 

6.25 

n 

4.42 

5.63 

4.71 

6. 

4.18 

5.32 

6.06 

7.71 

n 

5.35 

6.81   : 

5.71 

7.27 

5.06 

6.44 

7.33 

9  33 

14 

6.36 

8.10 

6.79 

8.65 

6.02 

7.67 

8.72 

11.11 

1^ 

7.47 

9.51 

7.94 

10.15  , 

7.07 

9. 

10.24 

13.04 

n 

8.66 

11.03  ; 

9.21 

11.77 

8.20 

10.14 

11  87 

15.12 

n 

9.95 

12.66   i 

10.61 

13.52 

9.41 

11.98 

13.63 

17.36 

2 

11.32 

14.41 

12.08 

15.38  ; 

10.71 

13.63 

15.51 

19.75 

2J 

12.78 

16.27 

13.64 

17.36 

12.05 

15.80 

17.51 

22.29 

H 

14.32 

18.24 

15.29 

19.47 

13.51 

17.20, 

19.63 

25. 

21 

15.96 

20.32 

17.03 

21.69 

15  05 

19.17 

21.80 

27.80 

24 

17.68 

22.53   ; 

18.87 

24.03 

16.68 

21.21 

24.24 

30.86 

2| 

19.50 

24.83 

20.81 

26.50 

18.39 

23.41 

26.72 

34.02 

21 

21.40 

27.25 

22.84 

29.08 

20.18 

25.70 

29..33 

37.34 

n 

23.39 

29.78 

24.92 

31.79 

22.06 

28.10 

32.05 

40.81 

8 

25.47 

32.43   i 

27.1S  ' 

34.61 

24.23 

30.60 

34.90 

44.44 

184     WEIGHT  OF  CAST    IRON  &  lEON    AND    BRASS    BALLS. 


CAST    IRON. 

Weight  of  a  Foot  in  Length  of  Flat  Cast  Jrcn. 


Width 

Thick, 

Thick, 

Thick, 

Thick, 

Thick, 

Thick, 

Thick, 

Of  Iron. 

nth  inch. 

3-Sths  inch 
Pounds. 

1-2  inch. 

S-Sths  inch. 
Pounds. 

3-4ths  inch. 

7-8ths  incli. 
Pounds. 

1  incli. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds, 

Pounds. 

2 

1-.56 

2-34 

312 

3-90 

4-68 

5-46 

6-25 

2i 

1-75 

2-63 

3-51 

4-39 

5-27 

615 

7-03 

2* 

1-95 

2-92 

3-90 

4-S8 

5-85 

6-83 

7-81 

21 

214 

322 

4-29 

5-37 

6-44 

7-51 

8-59 

3 

2-34 

351 

4-68 

5-85 

7-03 

8-20 

9-37 

3i 

2-53 

3-80 

5-07 

6-34 

7-61 

8-88 

10-15 

3* 

2-73 

4-10 

5-46 

683 

8-20 

9-57 

10-93 

35 

293 

4-39 

585 

732 

S-7S 

10-25 

11-71 

4 

312 

4-68 

6-25 

7-81 

9-37 

10-£>3 

12-50 

4| 

3-32 

4-97 

6-64 

S-30 

9-96 

11-62 

13:28 

4h 

3-51 

5  27 

7-03 

8-78 

10  54 

12-30 

14-06 

4^ 

371 

5-56 

7-42 

9-27 

11-13 

12-98 

1484 

£ 

3-90 

5-86 

7-81 

9-76 

11  71 

13-67 

15-62 

5;J 

410 

615 

8-20 

10-25 

12-30 

14-35 

16-40 

-  5.^ 

4-29 

6-44 

8-59 

10-74 

12-89 

1503 

17-18 

S.'v 

4-49 

673 

8-98 

11-23 

13-46 

15-72 

17-96 

6 

4-68 

703 

9-37 

11-71 

1406 

16-40 

1875 

CAST    IKON. 
Weight  of  a  Superficial  Foot  from  \  to  1  inches  thicK. 


Size. 

Weight. 
Pounds. 

Size. 

AVeight. 
Poumls. 

Size. 
Ins. 

AVeight. 
Pounds. 

Size. 

■\Vci?lit. 

Size 

1d<.. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

pounds. 

Ins. 

ii 

9.37 

i 

23.1.5 

1 

37.50 

1^ 

51.56 

1:1 

1 

14.06 

5 

28.12 

IJ 

42.18 

1*. 

56.25 

n 

h 

18.73 

I 

32.81 

l.i 

46  87 

1| 

60.93 

2 

CAST    IRON,  COPPER,  BRASS,  AND    LEAD    BALLS. 

Weight  of  Cast   Iron,  Copper,  Brnss.  and    Lead  Balls,  from  1  inch  to 
12  inches  in  Diameter. 


5 

■S  0 

6^ 

o. 
o 

o 

1 

'6 

el 

pounds. 

•214 

i 

5 

Cast 
Iron. 

Copper. 

g 

a 

1 

Ins. 
1 

pounds. 

•136 

pounds. 

-166 

I)oundH. 

•158 

Indies. 
7 

pounds. 

46-76 

pounds. 
57- 1 

pounds. 

54-5 

pounds. 

73-7 

u 

•46 

•562 

•537 

•727 

n 

57-52 

70-0 

67  11 

900 

2 

1-09 

1-3 

1-25 

1-7 

8 

69-81 

85-2 

81-4 

110-1 

2* 

213 

2-60 

2-50 

3-35 

8^ 

83-73 

102-3 

1000 

1  .'52-3 

3 

3-68 

45 

43 

5-8 

9 

P9.4 

121-3 

1159 

156-7 

3* 

5-84 

7-14 

6-82 

923 

H 

116-9 

1430 

1.36-4 

ISl  7 

4 

8-72 

10-7 

10-2 

13-8 

10 

l.'56-35 

166-4 

1590 

21.50 

4* 

12  42 

15-25 

14-5 

19-6 

10.^ 

1.57-84 

193-0 

184  0 

250-0 

5 

1704 

20-8 

19-9 

26-9 

11 

181-48 

221  8 

211-8 

2S6-7 

H 

22-68 

27-74 

26-47 

36-0 

m 

207-37 

233-5 

242-0 

327-7 

6 

29-45 

35-9 

34-3 

46-4 

12 

235-62 

288-1 

275-0 

372-3 

eh 

37-44 

4576 

43-67 

6913 

WEIGHT    OF    ROUND   AND    SQUAEE    CAST    IRON. 


185 


CAST  IRON. 

—  Weight  of  a  Foot  in  L 

mgth  of  Sq 

uare  and  Round. 

SQUARE. 

ROUND. 

Size. 

Weight.  „ 

Size. 

Weight. 

Size. 

Weiglit. 

1    Size. 

Weight 

Inches 
Square 

Poundj. 

Inches 
Square. 

Pounds. 

Inches 
Diam. 

Pounds.  * 

Inches 
Diam. 

Pounds. 

d 

•78 

45 

74-26 

4 

•61     1 

45 

58-32 

1 

1-22 

5 

78-12 

1 

-95 

5 

61-35 

i 

1-75 

5^ 

82-08 

i 

1-38 

5i 

64-46 

I 

2-39 

H 

86-13 

I 

187 

H 

67-64 

I 

312 

H 

90-28 

1 

2-45 

5| 

7009 

n 

3-95 

5h 

94-53 

n 

3  10 

54 

74-24 

H 

4-8S 

H 

98-87 

u 

3  83 

5ft 

77-65 

If 

5-90 

51 

103-32 

If 

4-64 

5| 

81-14 

n 

7-03 

55 

107-86 

14 

5-52 

^ 

84-71 

if 

8-25 

6 

112-50 

ii 

6-48 

6 

88-35 

11 

9-,57 

H 

12208 

11 

7-51 

H 

95-87 

n 

10-98 

H 

13203 

n 

8-62 

H 

103-69 

2 

1250 

64 

142.38 

2 

9-81 

6| 

111  82 

2k 

14-11 

7 

153-12 

2i 

1108 

7 

12026 

2k 

15-81 

7.i 

164-25 

2i 

12-42 

H 

129- 

2| 

17-62 

n 

175-78 

21 

1384 

u 

138-05 

24 

19-53 

7| 

187-68 

24 

15-33 

n 

147-41 

2| 

21-53 

8 

200- 

2| 

1691 

8 

15708 

21 

23-63 

H 

212-56 

2| 

18-56 

8| 

167-05 

25 

25-83 

84 

225-78 

21 

20-28 

84 

177-10 

3 

28- 1 2 

8| 

239-25 

3 

22-08 

8| 

187-91 

Si 

30-51 

9 

2.53  12 

3J 

23-96 

9 

198-79 

H 

33- 

H 

267-38 

H 

25-92 

H 

210- 

31 

35-59 

94 

282- 

31 

27-95 

94 

221-50 

H 

38-28 

n 

29707 

34 

30-06 

91 

233-31 

3| 

4106 

10 

312-50 

H 

32-25 

10 

245-43 

31 

43-94 

lOi 

328-32 

3| 

34-51 

m 

257-86 

H 

46-92 

104 

344-53 

H 

3685 

104 

270-59 

4 

50- 

10| 

361-13 

4 

39-27    1 

10| 

283-63 

4i 

53-14 

n 

378-12 

4J 

41  76 

11 

296-97 

4^ 

56-44 

Hi 

395-50 

4i 

44-27 

lU 

310-63 

^ 

59-81 

114 

413-28 

41 

46-97 

114 

324-59 

^ 

63-28 

111 

431-44 

44 

49-70 

m 

3.38-85 

4| 

66-84 

12 

450- 

4| 

52-50 

12 

35343 

4i 

70-50 

4| 

55-37 

STEEL. - 

-  Weight  of  a 

Foot  in  Length  of  Flat. 

• 

Size. 

Thick, 
1-4  inch. 

Thick, 

3-Sths. 

Thick, 
1-2  inch. 

Thick,  1 

o-Sths.  1 

Size. 

Thick, 
1-4  inch. 

Thick,  1  Thick, 
3-Sths.  Il-2ineh. 

Thick, 
."i-Sths. 

Inches 
1 

pounds. 

•852 

pounds. 

1  27 

pounds. 

1-70 

pounds. 

2.13 

Inches. 
24 

pounds. 

2-13 

pounds. 

3-20 

pounds. 

4-26 . 

pounds. 

5-32 

n 

-958 

1-43 

1-91 

2-39  , 

m 

234 

3-51 

4-68 

5-85 

H 

1-06 

1-59 

2  13 

2-66 

3 

2-55 

.3  83 

5-11 

639 

n 

1  17 

1  75 

234 

2-92 

3^ 

2-77 

4-15 

5  53 

6-92 

n 

1  27 

1  91 

255 

3-19 

34 

2-98 

4-47 

5-98 

7-45 

n 

1-49 

2-23 

2^98 

3  72 

n 

319 

4-79 

6-38 

7-98 

2 

170 

2-55 

3-40 

4-26 

4 

3-40 

5-10 

6-80 

8-32 

2| 

191 

2-87 

3-83 

4-79 

16-^ 


186 


PARALLEL   AND    TAPER   ANGLE    IKON. 


WEIGHTS   OF    ROLLED   IRON 

Per  lineal  foot,  in  pounds  and  decimal  parts,  of  sections  of  Parallel  Angle 
Taper  Angle,  Parallel  J,  Taper  J,  and  Sank  Iron  and  Rails. 

Table  I. —  Parallel  Axgle  Iron,  of  Equal  Sides. 


f 

il 


Lena:ih  of  sides. 

Uniform  lliickness 

Weinrht  of  one 

A  B,  in  inches. 

throug'hoLit. 

lineal  foot. 

in. 

in. 

3 

3_ 

80 

2| 

70 

2i 

8 

575 

2i 

5-16ths 

4-5 

2 

d  full 

3-75 

li 

k 

30 

li 

i 

25 

ll 

No.  6  wire  guage 

1-75 

li 

8 

1-5 

1* 

9 

1  25 

1 

10 

10 

1 

10 

•875 

11 

•625 

4 

11 

•563 

\ 

12 

■5 

A 


Table  II. —  Parallel  Angle  Irox,  of  Unequal  Sides. 


L'^h  of  side 

L'eth  of  side 

Uniform 

Weight  of  1 

A  in  inches. 

Bin  inches. 

thickness 
throu-rhoul. 

lineal   loot. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

3.i 

5 

3 

975 

3 

5 

1 

5^75 

3 

4 

5-l«ths 

7-5 

2.i 

4 

5-16ths 

675 

2.i 

4 

h 

5-75 

2 

4 

k 

5-5 

2i 

3 

k 

4-75 

2 

2i 

i 

3-375 

1.^ 

2 

k 

2-875 

1-i 

2 

3-16ths 

2-23 

A , 


s^^^ 


B 


Table  III— Tap^r  Angle  Iron,  of  Equal  Sides 


L'gih  of  sides 

'I'hickness  of 

Tliickness  of 

Weiprht  of  1 

A.A,  ill  inches. 

edifes  at  B. 

root  at  c. 

lineal  foot. 

in. 

in. 

171. 

4 

h 

i 

110 

3 

h 

1 

io:n5 

2.1 

7-16lh9 

a-iethit 

8-25 

2i 

J 

h 

e-5 

2.1 

5-HiiJis,full 

7-l()llis 

5  0 

■> 

,i  lull 

.0-16!hi  full 

3-S7.> 

H 

.i 

5-l()tli.s 

3-25 

Ih 

i  bare 

5-16lh,ljare 

2  625 

WEIGHT    OF    PARALLEL    AND    TAPER    T    IRON 


187 


WEIGHl^    OF    PARALLEL    AND    TAPER    T  IRON. 
Table  /F.  -Parallel  J  iron,  of  Unequal  Width  and  Dtpxa 


Width 

Total 

Uniform 

Uniform 

Weijrht  of 

ot  top 

depth 

thickness 

thickness 

one  lineal 

table  A. 

B. 

top  table  c 

of  rib  D. 

foot. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

5 

6 

h 

h 

1.5-75 

4i 

H 

h 

9-16ths 

13-25 

4 

3 

3 

t 

8-875 

3i 

3 

J 

825 

3i 

4 

h 

^ 

12  5 

u. 

3 

i 

ffuU 

7-0 

n 

2 

5-16ths 

4-5 

2 

1-^ 

5-16ths 

5-16tlis 

4-0 

11 

2 

i 

i 

3-125 

14 

2 

k 

i 

2-875 

n 

li 

i 

k 

2-375 

1 

H 

3-16!hs 

3-16ths 

1-5 

1 

1 

3-16ths 

3-16ths 

1  125 

l\^'^x^;^-:-|px\-^ 


X.. 


^d 


Table  V. —  Parallel  J  Iro.v,  of  EquAL  Depth  and  Width. 


Width  of  top  ta- 

Uniform 

Weight  of  • 

ble,  and  total 

thickness 

one 

depth  A,  A. 

throughout 

lineal  foot. 

in. 

in. 

6 

h 

5 

7-16ths 

13-75 

4 

! 

g 

9-75 

34 

S-5 

3 

7-5 

24 

5-l«ths 

4-625 

2i 

5-16th3 

4-5 

2 

5-16ths 

3-75 

1| 

4 

30 

14 

i 

2-25 

n 

i 

1-75 

1 

3-16ths 

10 

t 

1 

•725 
•625 

-A— 


^ 


'/^yy9/>/^'-A/'///'A 


Table  VI.  — 

Taper  T Ikon 

Width 

Total  Thickness  Thickness    Uniform  |  Weight 

of  top 

depth  of  top  table  of  top  table  thicknesof  of  one 

table  A 

B. 

at  root  c. 

at  edges  D. 

nb    E.     lin.foot. 

in. 

%n. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

3 

H 

4 

I 

7-16ths 

8-0 

3 

•^ 

7-16ths 

3 

8 

4 

8-0 

2 

3 

7-16ths 

5-16ths 

5-16th<! 

5-25 

24      24 

1 

4 

4  full 

6-5 

:    2      14 

1  full 

5-16th3 

t         i  3-5      1 

I     2     1 

14 

5-16ths 

k                k         1  2-875 1 

168 


WEIGHT    OF    IRON    SASHES    AND    RAILS. 


WEIGHT    OF    SASHES    AND    RAILS. 
Table  VII.  —  Sash  Iron. 


Total 

depth 

A. 

Depth 

of  re- 
bate B. 

AVidth 
at  edge  c. 

greatest 

width 

D. 

Weight  of 

one  lineal 

foot. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

2 

1 

No.  9  w.  guage 

5-8ths 

1-75 

If 

;. 

7 

9-16ths 

1  625 

U 

i 

6 

9-16ths 

1-2.5 

H 

§ 

10 

9-16th.>. 

1125 

A 

10 

9-16ths 

10 

1 

1 

* 

h 

•75 

Table  VIII  —  Rails  ec^ual  top  and  bottom  Tables. 

-B- 


Depth  A 

ill  inches. 


in. 
5 

4i 
4i 


Width  across 

top  and  Ijottom, 

BB,  in  inches. 


in. 
2| 

2i 


Thickness 
of  rib  c. 


Weight  of 
1  lin.  foot. 


in. 
\ 
\ 


25-0 

2.'J-,3.3 

21-66 


I^ 


K  - 


-B 


/    L    f 


L- 


•u- 


TaUe  IX.  —  Temporary    Rails. 


Top  width 
a. 


Rib  width 
B. 


tn. 


in. 


Bed  width 
c. 


171. 

3 
4 
4 


Total 
depth  D. 


in. 
2 

2i 

.•} 

3 


Thickness 
of  bed  E. 


Wcig-ht  of 
L  lin.   foot 


in. 
7-16ths 
h 


90 
12  0 
160 
173.3 


WEIGHT    OF    FLAT    IRON. 


189 


WEIGHT     OF 


A     LINEAL      FOOT     OF     MALLEABLE    REC- 
TANGULAR   OR    FLAT    IRON. 


From  an  Eighth  of  an  Inch  to  Three  Inches  Thick. 
T  designates  the  thickness,  B.  the  breadth. 


T. 

B. 

Weig)it. 

T. 

1    B. 

in. 

j  Weight. 

T 

'TIT 

Weight. 

T 

1  ^' 

in. 

Weight. 

in. 

in 

lbs.      ozs. 

in. 

lbs.      ozs. 

in 

lbs.      ozs. 

in 

Jbs.      ozs. 

* 

1 

0     1.6 

i 

10:] 

4     7-3 

i 

94 

7  141 

i 

8| 

10  13-8 

o 

0     2-4 

11 

4     9-0 

n 

8     1-4 

9 

11     2.8 

1 

0     3-3 

Hi 

4  10-7 

10 

8     4-8 

H 

11     7-8 

1 

0     4-1 

n-i 

4  12-3 

loi 

8     8-1 

94 

11   127 

i 

0     5-0 

m 

4   14-0 

lOi 

8  11-4 

95 

12     1-7 

i 

0     5-8 

12 

4  15-6 

io| 

8  14-7 

10 

12     67 

1 

0     6-6 

11 

11. i 

9     2-0 
9     5-4 

lOi 

104 

12  11  6 

13  0-6 

0     8-3 

1 

4 

i 

0     6-6 

H 

0     9-9 

0     8-3 

114 

9     8-7 

103 

13     56 

i| 

0  11-6 

1 

0  100 

115 

9  12  0 

11 

13  10-5 

2 

0  13-2 

I 

0  11  6 

12 

9  15-3 

Hi 

13  15-5 

24 

0  14-9 

1 

u 

0  13-2 

114 
111 

14     J-'i 

■^4 

2h 

1     0-6 

1     0-6 

Y 

% 

•  0  14-9 

14     94 

2| 

1     2-2 

u 

1     3-9 

I 

1     1-3 

12 

14  14-4 

3 

1      .^-9 

11 

2 

1      7'> 

1 

1     3-8 
1     8-8 

H 

1     55 

X           1     ad 

1   10.5 

4 

1 

1   10-4 

H 

1     7-2 

2i 

1   13-8 

• 

14 

1  13-8 

H 

2     11 

31 

1     8-9 

24 

2     1-2 

13 

2     2-7 

14 

2     7-7 

4 

1   105 

21 

2     4-5 

2 

2     7-7 

i| 

2  14-3 

4i 

1   12-2 

3 

2     7-8' 

2i 

2  12-7 

2 

3     4-9 

4h 

1  13  8 

3i 

2  IM 

24 

3     1-6 

2d 

3  11-6 

44 

1  15-5 

3h 

2  14-4 

25 

3     6-6 

24 

4     2-2 

5 

2     12 

31 

3     1-8 

3 

3  11-6 

25 

4     8.8 

5i 

2     2-8 

4 

3     51 

3-i 

4     0-5 

3 

4  15-4 

5^ 

2     4-5 

H 

3     8-4 

34 

4     5-5 

H 

5     61 

51 

2     61 

4h 

3  11  7 

31 

4  10-5 

34 

5  12-7 

6 

2     78 

4| 

3  15-0 

4 

4  15-4 

35 

6     3.3 

6i 

2     9-5 

5 

4     2-4 

44 

5     4-4 

4 

6     9-9 

6;^ 

2  111 

5i 

4     5-7 

44 

5     9-4 

4i 

7     0-6 

61 

2  128 

54 

4  .90 

45 

5  14-3 

44 

7     7-2 

7 

2  14-4 

55 

4  12-3 

5 

6     3-3 

45 

7  13  8 

7i 

3     0  1 

6 

4  15-6 

5i 

6     8-3 

5 

8     4-4 

7i 

3     1-8 

6i 

5     3-0 

54 

6  13-2 

5i 

8  111 

7| 

3     3-4 

64 

5     6-3 

55 

7     2-2 

54 

9     1-7   • 

8 

3     51 

6l 

5     96 

6 

7     7-2 

55 

9     8-3 

8i 

3     6-7 

7 

5  130 

64^ 

7  12-2 

6 

9  149 

8i 

3     8-4 

7i 

6     02 

64 

8     11 

H 

10     5-6 

8;| 

3  10  1 

74 

6     .3-6 

65 

8     6-1 

64 

10  12-2 

9 

3  11-7 

7| 

6     7-0 

7 

8  111 

65 

11     2  8 

9.i 

3  13-4 

8 

6  10-2 

7.i 

9     00 

7 

11     94 

9i 

3  150 

8i 

6  13-5 

7.-i 

9     50 

7ii 

12     00 

9| 

4        7 

84 

7     0-8 

7.5 

9  lO-O 

74 

12     6-7 

10 

4     2-4 

Si 

7     4-2 

8 

9  14-9 

75 

12  1.3  3 

lOJ 

4     4-0         j 

9 

7     7-5 

8.1 

10     3-9 

8 

13     39 

lOi 

4     5-7 

1 

H 

7  10-8 

84 

10     8-9 

H 

13  10-5 

190 


WEIGHT    OF    FLAT    IRON. 


T.  designates  tne  thickness.  B.  the  breadth. 


T 

B. 

in. 

Weight. 

T 

in 

B. 

in. 

Weight.  ' 

r.  B. 

n.  in. 

Weight.  ' 

r.  B. 

1.  in. 

Weight. 

in 

lbs.   ozs. 

lbs.   ozs.  i 

lbs.   ozs.  i 

lbs.   ozs. 

i 

8^ 

14  1-2 

1 

9k 

19  10-6 

1  io| 

26  11-2  1 

2 

6  10-0 

H 

14  7-8 

93 

20  2.9 

11 

27  5-1 

24 

7  7-2 

9 

14  14  4 

10 

20  11-2 

114 

27  151 

2i 

8  4.4 

H 

15  50 

104 

21  3-«t 

Hi 

28  9-0 

n 

9  1-7 

H 

15  11-7 

m 

21  11-7 

111 

29  30 

3 

9  14-7 

n 

16  23 

105 

22  40 

12 

29  12-9 

34 

10  12-2 

10 

16  8-9 

1 1 

22  12  3  - 

3i 

Si 

11  9-4 

12  67 

1'-' 

KM 

16  15-5 

1  1. 

114 

23  4-6 

l^ 

5  11 

10^ 

17  6-2 

Hi 

23  128 

2 

5  12  7 

4 

13  39 

10$ 

17  12-8 

m 

24  51 

24 

6  8-3 

44 

14  1-2 

11 

IS  3-4 

12 

24  13-4 

2i 

7  3.9 

4i 

14  14-4 

114 

m 

18  lOO 

? 

7  15-5 

8  11.1 

4| 
5 

15  11  7 

16  89 

19  0-7 

i| 

li 

3  11-6 

m 

19  7-3 

IJ 

4  5-5 

34 

9  6-7 

54 

17  6-2 

12 

19  13-9 

2 

24 

4  15-4 

5  9-4 

10  2.2 
10  13-8 

5i 
53 

18  3-4 

19  0-7 

'— 

1 

H 

2  9-4 

2i 

6  3-3 

4 

11  9-4 

6 

19  139 

u 

3  1-6 

21 

6  13  2 

H 

12  5-0 

64 

20  11-2 

n 

3  9-9 

3 

7  7-2 

4 

13  0-6 

6i 

21  84 

2 

4  22 

34 

8  11 

n 

13  12-2 

6i 

22  5.7 

24 

4  10-5 

3i 

8  111 

5 

14  78 

7 

23  2-9 

2* 

5  2-8 

35 

9  50 

H 

15  3-4 

74 

24  0-2 

2i 

5  110 

4 

9  14-9 

4 

15  150 

7i 

24  13-4 

3 

6  3.3 

44 

10  8-9 

4 

16  10-6 

n 

25  10-6 

34 

6  11  6 

4i 

11  2-8 

6 

17  62 

8 

26  7-9 

Si 

7  3-9 

4| 

11  12-7 

64 

18  1-8 

84 

27  51 

n 

7  122 

5 

12  6  7 

4 

18  13  4 

8i 

28  2-4 

4 

8  4-4 

54 

13  0-6 

H 

19  8-9 

Si 

28  156 

44 

8  12.7 

5i 

13  10-6 

7 

20  4-5 

9 

29  12-9 

4i 

9  50 

51 

14  4-5 

74 

21  01 

9.1 

30  101 

4^ 

9  13-3 

6 

14*14-4 

7i 

21  11.7 

9i 

31  7-4 

5 

10  5-6 

64 

15  S-4 

7| 

22  7-3 

9:i 

32  4-6 

54 

10  13-8 

6i 

16  2-3 

8 

23  2.9 

10 

33  1-9 

5ii 

11  61 

63, 

16  12-2 

84 

23  14-5 

104 

33  151 

5ii 

11  14  4 

7 

17  62 

4 

24  101 

lOi 

:J4  12  4 

6 

12  6-7 

74 

18  01 

H 

25  57 

105 

35  9.6 

64 

12  150 

7i! 

18  10-0 

9 

26  1-3 

11 

36  69 

6i 

13  7-2 

n 

19  40 

94 

26  12  9 

H.1 

37  4-1 

6.^ 

13  15-5 

8 

19  13-9 

9A 

27  8.5 

Hi 

38  1-4 

7 

14  7-8 

84 

•20  7-8 

H 

28  4-0 

11:1 

3S  14-6 

74 

15  0.1 

8i; 

21  1-8 

10 

28  15-6 

12 

39  119 

7i 
7-4 

15  8-4 

8;{ 

9 

21  11-7 

22  5.7 

lot 

29  11-2  - 

30  6-8  1  i 

16  0-6 

'"  1 
lOi 

^  2.i 

8  6-1 

8 

16  8-9 

94 

22  15  6 

lof 

31  2-4 

2i 

9  50 

84 

17  12 

9i 

23  9-5 

11 

81  140 

2.1 

10  3  9 

8.i 

17  9-5 

9:1 

24  3.5 

ll.{ 

32  9-6 

3 

1 1  2-8 

«ii 

18  18 

10 

24  13-4 

Hi 

33  5-2 

31 

12  1-7 

9  1 

18  10.0 

10.1 

25  7-3 

11=1 

31  0-8 

H 

13  0-6 

».ll 

19  2  3 

lOi  26  1-3  1 

12 

34  12.4 

35 

13  15-5 

WEIGHT    OF    FLAT    IRON. 


191 


T.  designates  the  thickness,  B.  tlie  breadth. 


T. 

B. 

in. 

AV 

eight. 

T. 

in. 

B. 

j  in. 

Weight. 

T. 

in 

B. 

in. 

w 

eight.  . 

T. 

'  B. 

in. 

AV 

eight. 

in. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

'lbs. 

ozs. 

in. 

lbs. 

•  ozs. 

H 

4 

14 

14-4 

H 

6i 

25 

140 

If 

83 

39 

13-5 

u 

Hi 

57 

21 

4i 

15 

13-3 

6h 

28 

14-5 

9 

40 

15-7 

113 

58 

5.9 

4i 

16 

122 

d'i 

27 

151 

H 

42 

20 

12 

59 

98 

43 
5 

17 

111 

7 

28 

15-6 

93 

43 

4-2 

■ 

Ig 

100 

7i 

30 

0-2 

44 

6-4 

H 

H 

17 

7-8 

5i 

19 

8-9 

u 

31 

0-8 

10 

45 

8-6 

H 

IS 

13-4 

H 

20 

7-8 

n 

32 

13 

101 

46 

10-8 

33 

20 

29 

53 

21 

6-8 

8 

33 

1-9 

lOi 

47 

130 

4 

21 

8-4 

6 

22 

5-7 

H 

34 

2-4 

103 

48 

15-2 

4i 

22 

13-9 

H 

23 

4-6 

H 

35 

30 

11 

50 

1-5 

4h 

24 

3  5 

eh 

24 

3-5 

83 

36 

3-6 

1I5 

51 

3-7 

43 

25 

90 

6| 

25 

2-4 

9 

37 

41 

Hi 

52 

59 

5 

26 

145 

7 

26 

13 

H 

38 

4-7 

113 

53 

81 

H 

28 

40 

7i 

27 

0-2 

H 

39 

5-2 

12 

54 

10-3 

4 

29 

9-6 

27 

151 

93 

10 

40 

5-8 

53 

30 

151 
4-6 

28 

140 

41 

6-4 

li 

3 

14 

14.4 

"•1 

6 

32 

8 

29 

12-9 

10| 

42 

6-9 

H 

16 

2-3 

H 

33 

10-2 

H 

30 

11-8 

m 

43 

7-5 

H 

17 

6-2 

6i 

34 

15-7 

H 

31 

10-7 

103 

44 

8-0 

3| 

18 

lO'O 

63 

36 

5-2 

8| 

32 

9-6 

11 

45 

8-6 

4 

19 

139 

7 

37 

10-7 

9 

33 

8-5 

114 

46 

9-2 

4| 

21 

1.8 

n 

39 

0-3 

H 

34 

7-4 

lu 

47 

9-7 

4i 

22 

5-7 

u 

40 

5-8 

H 

35 

6-3 

113 

48 

103 

43 

23 

95 

n 

41 

113 

n 

36 

5-2 

12 

49 

10-8 

5 

24 

13.4 

8 

43 

0-9 

10 

•^7 

41 

30 

54 
5i 

26 

27 

1-3 

51 

8i 

dS 

6-4 
11-9 

m 

O  1 

38 

n 

23 

12 

8-3 

°4 

8i 

45 

lol 

S9 

1-9 

3 

13 

10-6 

53 

28 

90 

S3 

47 

14 

10| 

40 

0-8 

H 

14 

12-8 

6 

29 

12-9 

9 

48 

70 

11 

40 

15-7 

H 

15 

15-0 

H 

31 

0-8 

H 

49 

12-5 

Hi 

41 

14-6 

33 

17 

1-2 

H 

32 

4-6 

H 

51 

20 

Hi 

42 

13-5 

4 

18 

34 

63 

33 

8-5 

93 

52 

7-6 

113 

43 

12-4 

H 

19 

5-6 

7 

34 

12-4 

10 

53 

131 

12 

44 

11-4 

4h 

20 

7-8 

7i 

36 

0-2 

lOi 

55 

26 



43 

21 

101 

H 

37 

41 

loi 

56 

8-1 

" 

H 

o^ 

10 

5-6 

5 

22 

12-3 

n 

38 

8-0 

103 

57 

13-7 

23 

11 

61 

H 

23 

14-5 

8 

39 

11-9 

11 

59 

3-2 

3 

12 

6-7 

H 

25 

0-7 

H 

40 

15-7 

114 

60 

8.7 

H 

13 

7-2 

53 

26 

2-9 

8i 

42 

3-6 

Hi 

61 

14-2 

H 

14 

7-8 

6 

27 

51 

83 

43 

7-5 

113 

63 

3-8 

33 

15 

8-4 

H 

28 

7-4 

9 

44 

11-4 

12 

64 

9-3 

4 

16 

8-9 

6k 

29 

9-6 

94 

45 

15-2 

H 

17 

9-5 

6| 

30 

11-8 

47 

3  1 

I4 

u 

20 

4-5 

4i 

18 

100 

7 

31 

14-0 

n 

48 

70 

3:1 

2] 

11-7 

43 

19 

10-6 

U 

33 

0-2 

10 

49 

10-8 

4 

23 

2-9 

5 

20 

11-2 

u 

34 

2-4 

K'i 

50 

14-7 

44 

24 

101 

5i 

21 

11-7 

n 

35 

4-7 

io| 

52 

2-6 

4i 

26 

1-3 

H 

22 

I2:i 

8 

36 

6-9 

103 

53 

6-5 

43  1 

27 

8-5 

53 

23 

128 

Si 

37 

91 

11 

54 

10-3 

5  i 

28 

15-6 

6 

24 

13-4 

8i 

38 

11-3 

Hi 

55 

14  2 

5il 

30 

6-8 

ly 

d 

WEIGHT    OF 

FLAT    IRON. 

T.  designates  the  thickness,  B.  the  breadth. 

T.     B.      W 

eigrht.  JT.;    B. 

w 

eight. 

T. 

in. 

B. 

in. 

W 

eight. 

T. 

in. 

B. 

W 

eiglit. 

ill.    in     lbs. 

1. 
ozs.  in. 

in. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

iu. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

1|     o.i    31 

140 

n 

9 

55 

14-2 

2i 

44 

^31 

10-7 

n 

85    65 

32 

5iJ    33 

5-2 

9i 

57 

70 

45 

33 

6-3 

9 

67 

10 

6    ;34 

12-4 

i>4 

58 

15-9 

5 

35 

30 

9i 

68 

14-9 

61 

36 

3-6 

n 

60 

8-7 

5^ 

36 

15-2 

94 

70 

12-7 

6i 

37 

10-7 

10 

62 

1-6 

54 

38 

113 

95 

72 

10-5 

6| 

39 

1-9 

m 

63 

10-4 

55 

40 

7-5 

10 

74 

8-3 

7 

40 

91 

104 

65 

3-2 

6 

42 

3-6 

m 

76 

61 

7.i 

42 

0-3 

10| 

66 

121 

6.i 

43 

15  8 

10.4 

78 

3-9 

74 

43 

75 

11 

68 

4-9 

64 

45 

119 

lOij 

SO 

1-7 

n 

44 

14.7 

lU 

69 

13-8 

65 

47 

8-1 

11 

81 

15-5 

8 

46 

5-8 

114 

71 

6-6 

7 

49 

4-2 

m 

83 

13-3 

Si 

47 

13»0 

111 

72 

15-4 

74 

51 

0-4 

114 

85 

111 

8i 

49 

4-2 

12 

74 

S-3 

74 

52 

12-5 

113 

87 

8-9 

8| 

50 

11-4 

75 
8 

54 
56 

8-7 

12 

89 

6-7 

52 

J.  J.     ^ 

2-6 

2 

4 

r^R 

7-9 
2-4 

0      1 

4-8 

»7 

9.\ 

53 

9-8 

4i 

28 

8i 

58 

*4    0 

10 

n 

I5 

37 

5-8 

H 

55 

1-0 

44 

29 

12-9 

8.h 

59 

131 

5 

39 

5-2 

n 

56 

81 

41 

31 

7-4 

85 

61 

9-3 

H 

41 

4-7 

10 

57 

15-3 

5 

33 

19 

9 

63 

5-4 

54 

43 

4-2 

lO.i 

59 

6-5 

H 

34 

12-4 

9.i 

65 

1-6 

55 

45 

3-6 

10.4 

60 

13-7 

54 

36 

6-9 

94 

66 

137 

6 

47 

31 

l()l 

62 

4-9 

53 

38 

14 

95 

68 

9-9 

6i 

49 

2-6 

11 

63 

12  1 

6 

39 

11-9 

10 

70 

60 

64 

51 

20 

Hi  6.5 

3  2 

6.i 

41 

6-4 

10.^ 

72 

2-2 

65 

53 

15 

llh    66 

10-4 

64 

43 

0-9 

104 

73 

14-3 

7 

55 

10 

llf 

68 

1-6 

65 

44 

11-4 

10.5 

75 

10-5 

n 

57 

0-4 

12 

69 

8-8 

7 

46 

5-8 

11 

77 

66 

74 

58 

15-9 

7i 
74 

48 

0-3 

"J 
11.4 

79 

2-S 

75 

60 

15-3 

1| 

35 

23 

4-6 

49 

10-8 

80 

150 

8 

62 

14-3 

O 

4 

24 

13-4 

7.5 

51 

5-3 

115 

82 

HI 

s\ 

64 

143 

•1.! 

26 

62 

8 

52 

15-8 

12 

84 

7-3 

84 

66 

13-7 

4h 

27 

15.1 

8i 

54 

10-3 

— 

85 

68 

13-2 

±*J    ad 

4:1 

29 

7-9 

84 

56 

4-8 

2-i 

44 

33 

8-5 

9 

70 

12-7 

5 

31 

0-8 

85 

57 

153 

45 

35 

63 

9J 

72 

121 

5.i 

32 

9-6 

9 

59 

90 

5 

37 

4  1 

94 

74 

116 

54 

34 

2-4 

^\ 

61 

4-3 

5.i 

39 

19 

95 

76 

11  1 

5ii 

35 

11-3 

o.\ 

62 

14-8 

54 

40 

157 

10 

78 

10-5 

6 

37 

4-6 

95 

64 

93 

55 

42 

13  5 

10 1 

80 

100 

6i 

38 

130 

10 

66 

3-8 

6 

44 

11-4 

104 

82 

9-4 

64 

40 

5-8 

m 

67 

143 

6.^ 

46 

92 

105 

84 

8-9 

G'i 

41 

14-6 

lOi 

69 

8-8 

64 

48 

70 

11 

86 

8-4 

7 

43 

►  7-5 

105 

71 

33 

65 

50 

4-8 

HI 

88 

7-8 

7i 

45 

0-3 

11 

72 

13-8 

7    , 

52 

2-6 

114 

90 

7-3 

74 

46 

9-2 

11-i 

74 

8-3 

7.i 

54 

04 

115 

92 

6-8 

n 

4S 

20 

1 

114 

76 

2-8 

1 

74 

55 

14  2 

1 

1 

12 

94 

6-2 

49 
51 

10-8 
37 

115 

12 

77 
79 

13  3 

7-8 

75 

8    i 

57 

!•>  0 

1 

' 

59 

1    M      V 

98 

-'4 

5    1 

41 

6-4 

8A 

liO 

125 
5-4 

84 

<;i 

7-6 

m 

j.-i 

7.5 

85    54 

^\    4.i| 

29 

14  5 

0,         \f » 

84 ' 63  • 

1     \t 

5  4 

O.J      ,-- 

54145 

8.6 

WEIGHT    OF    FLAT    IRON. 


19- 


T 

de: 

.ignates  the  thickne 

ss,  B 

.  the  breadth. 

T. 

B. 

ill. 

Weight. 

T. 

in. 

B. 

We 

ght. 

T. 

in. 

B. 

in. 

We 

?ht. 

T. 

ir.. 

in. 

We 

gilt. 

in. 

lbs 

ozs. 

in. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

lbs. 

ozs. 

2i 

51 

47 

9-7 

2| 

7 

60 

13-7 

n 

H 

77 

6-6 

91 

~8 

i"4 

97 

9-6 

6 

49 

10-8 

74 

63 

0-5 

83 

79 

111 

lo.i 

99 

15-7 

6i 

51 

120 

U 

65 

3-2 

9 

81 

15-5 

103 

102 

5-7 

6h 

53 

131 

n 

67 

60 

94 

84 

3-9 

11 

104 

11-8 

n 

55 

14-2 

8 

69 

8-8 

H 

86 

S-4 

114 

107 

19 

7 

57 

153 

8.i 

71 

11-6 

n 

88 

12-8 

ii-i 

109 

8-0 

n 

60 

0-4 

8h 

73 

14-3 

10 

91 

1-2 

111 

111 

141 

u 

62 

1-6 

SI 

76 

11 

104 

93 

5-7 

12 

114 

4-2 

u 

64 

2-7 

9 

78 

3-9 

10^ 

10| 

95 

10  1 

8 

66 

3-8 

n 

80 

6-7 

97 

14-5 

3 

6 

59 

98 

Si 

68 

4-9 

H 

82 

9-4 

11 

100 

30 

64 

62 

16 

Sh 

70 

6-0 

9:1 

84 

12-2 

114 

102 

7.4 

6d 

64 

9-3 

Si 

72 

7-2 

10 

86 

15-0 

114 

104 

lis 

61 

67 

1-0 

9 

74 

8-3 

104 

89 

1-8 

111 

107 

0-3 

7 

69 

8-8 

9i 

76 

9-4 

lOh 

91 

4-6 

12 

109 

4-7 

74 

72 

0-5 

9-i 
9^ 

7S 
80 

10-5 
11-6 

105 

11 

03 

7-3 

7i 
7:1 

74 

77 

S-3 
00 

95 

101 

01 

51 

54 

120 

10 

82 

12-8 

114 

97 

12-9 

6 

57 

21 

8 

79 

7-8 

m 

84 

13-9 

uh 

99 

15-7 

64 

59 

8-2 

84 

81 

15-5 

m 

86 

150 

m 

102 

2-4 

6h 

61 

14-2 

8i 

84 

7  3 

m 

89 

0-1 

12 

104 

5-2 

f 

74 

64 

4-3 

n 

86 

150 

11 

91 

1-2 

66 
69 

10-4 
0-5 

9 
94 

89 
91 

6-7 
14-5 

Hi 

93 

2-4 

2:1 

5h 

50 

1  5 

lid 

95 

3:5 

5:1 

52 

5-9 

n 

71 

6-6 

9.i 

94 

6-2 

111 

97 

4-6 

6 

54 

10-3 

7:1 

73 

12-7 

91 

96 

140 

12 

99 

5-7 

64 

56 

14-8 

8 

76 

2-S 

10 

99 

5-7 

6h 

59 

3-2 

84 

78 

8-9 

104 

101 

13.5 

■ 

2| 

54 

45 

10-3 

6| 

61 

7-6 

8i 

80 

15.0 

lOi 

104 

5.2 

5i  47 

130 

7 

63 

121 

8| 

83 

5-0 

103 

106 

13.0 

54 

49 

15-8 

74 

66 

0-5 

9 

85 

111 

11 

109 

4.7 

6 

52 

2-6 

U 

68 

4-9 

94 

88 

1-2 

114 

111 

12.4 

6i 

54 

5-4 

7% 

70 

9-4 

9i 

90 

7-3 

ii-i 

114 

4.2 

6d  56 

8-1 
10-9 

8 

72 

13-8 

91 

92 

134 

11:1 

116 

11.9 

6|  58 

84 

75 

2-2 

10 

95 

3-5 

12 

119 

3.7 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  TABLE  OF  FLAT  IRON. 

The  wei£;hts  here  given  are  in  poitnds,  ounces,  and  decimal  parts,  avoir- 
dupois ;  and  it  will  be  seen,  on  inspecting-  the  Tabic,  that  the  first  numbers 
in  each  page  are  those  which  applj'  to  nul  iron,  and  that  the  breadth  in- 
creases by  4  of  an  inch.  The  last  numbers  in  each  page  show  the  weight 
of  a  square  foot,  according  to  the  respective  thickness  of  each  bar.  Hence 
the  weight  of  any  length  of  a  bar  of  rectangular  iron  may  be  ascertained 
gimply,  as  follows  : 

Rule. — Multiply  the  tabular  weight,  according  to  the  thickness  and  breadth, 
by  the  number  of  feet  in  the  bar,  the  product  will  be  tne  weight  required. 

Example — In  a  bar  of  iron  whose  thickness  is  2}  inches,  the  breadth  61^ 
inches,  and  the  length  18  feet,  what  is  the  weight  thereof?. 

In  the  Table  for  2 [inches  thick,  and  opposite  G^  inches,  stand  48  lbs.  7  ozs.; 
being  the  weight  of  one  lineal  foot.  Multiply  this  number  by  18  feet,  and 
we  have  as  follows ; 

48  lbs.  7  ozs.  X  IS  =  871  lbs.  14  ozs. 


194 


ELASTICITY    OF    STEAM. 


ELASTIC    FORCE    OF   STEA.M. 

lable  of  the  Elastic  Force  of  Steam,  and  corresponding  Tempera- 
ture of  the  Water  ivith  ivhich  it  ts  in  Contact-. 


1    Elastic    1 

Volume  of 

Elastic 

Volume  of 

Pressure  in 

force  in 

Temper- 

Steam    ] 

Pressure  in 

force  in 

Temper- 

Steam 

pounds 

Inches 

ature 

compared  ] 

pounds 

Inches 

ature 

compared 

per  sij.  in  J 

of 

Fahreu't. 

with    Vol. 

per  sq.   in. 

of 

Fahren't. 

with    Vol 

Mercury. 

of    Water.! 

Mercury. 

of    Water- 

14.7 

3U.IJU 

212.0 

170U 

63 

128.52 

299.2 

44  9 

15 

30.00 

212.3 

1609 

04 

130.56 

300.3 

443 

16 

32.64 

216.3 

1573 

05 

132  00 

301.3 

437 

17 

34.68 

21i).6 

14SS 

00 

134.64 

302.4 

431 

18 

3a.72 

222.7 

1411 

07 

130  .'58 

303.4 

425 

19 

33.76 

225.6 

1343 

03 

138.72 

304.4 

419 

20 

40.80 

229.5 

1281 

69 

140.70 

305.4 

414 

21 

42  84 

231.2 

1225 

70 

142.S0 

3f)0.4 

403 

22 

44.83 

233.8 

1174 

71 

144.S4 

307.4 

403 

23 

46.92 

2:36.3 

1127 

72 

140.88 

303.4 

393 

24 

43.96 

238.7 

105*4 

73 

143.92 

309.3 

393 

25 

51J0O 

241.0 

1U44 

74 

150.90 

310.3 

383 

26 

53.04 

243.3 

1007 

75 

153  02 

311.2 

383 

27 

55.08 

215.5 

973 

70 

155.00 

312.2 

379 

23 

57.12 

247.6 

941 

77 

157.10 

313.1 

374 

29 

59.16 

249.6 

911 

73 

159.14 

314.0 

370 

30 

61.21 

251.6 

883 

79 

161.18 

314.9 

360 

31 

63.24 

853  6 

857 

SO 

103.22 

315  8 

362 

32 

65.28 

255.5 

833 

81 

10.5. 26 

310.7 

353 

33 

67.32 

257.3 

SlO 

82 

107.30' 

317.6 

354 

34 

69.36 

259.1 

788 

83 

109.34 

318.4 

350 

35 

71.40 

260.9 

J67 

84 

171.38 

319.3 

346 

36 

7344 

202.6 

743 

85 

173  42 

320.1 

342 

37 

75.48 

264.3 

729 

SO 

175.10 

321.0 

330 

33 

77.52 

265.9 

712 

87 

17  7. .50 

321.3 

335 

39 

79.56 

267.5 

695 

88 

179.54 

392  6 

3:12 

40 

81.60 

269.1 

679 

89 

181.58 

32:)  .5 

329 

41 

83.64 

270.0 

604 

90 

133.02 

321.3 

325 

43 

85.63 

272.1 

019 

91 

185.00 

325.1 

322 

43 

87.72 

273.6 

035 

92 

137.70 

325.9 

319 

44 

89.76 

276.0 

022 

93 

189.74 

326.7 

316 

45 

.91.80 

270.4 

010 

94 

101.78 

327.5 

313 

46 

93.81 

277.8 

593 

95 

193.S2 

328.2 

310 

47 

95.83 

279.2 

530 

90 

195.60 

329.0 

307 

43 

97.92 

230.5 

575 

97 

197.90 

329.8 

304 

49 

99.96 

281.9 

564 

93 

199.92 

330.5 

301 

50 

102.00 

283.2 

551 

99 

201.90 

331.3 

298 

51 

104.04 

284.4 

544 

100 

204.01 

332.0 

295 

52 

106.03 

2S5.7 

534 

110 

221.40 

339.2 

271 

53 

1(18.12 

280  9 

525 

120 

241. 82 

345.8 

251 

54 

11010 

258. 1 

516 

130 

203.23 

352.1 

233 

55 

1 12.20 

239.3 

503 

HO 

2S5.GI 

357  9 

218 

56 

114.21 

29!l.5 

500 

150 

306.03 

363.4 

205 

57 

116.23 

291.7 

492 

100 

320.42 

368.7 

193 

58 

118.32 

292.9 

4Sl 

170 

310.80 

373.6 

133 

59 

120.30 

204  2 

477 

180 

307.25 

378.4 

174 

CO 

122.40 

295.6 

470 

190 

.387.61 

382.9 

166 

61 

121.44 

290.9 

403 

200 

403.01 

337.3 

153 

62 

120.43 

298  1 

456 

1 

Water  ii 

ililmcr  im 

puriiies  in  solution  lends  to  ret 

ard  its  at 

ainin^  l)i 

c  nuriform 

stale,  and  so  impair: 

the  amount  of  its  cla.sllc  force 

al  an  cqi 

al  lenipcr 

aturc. 

Common  v 
Sea  waler 
Common  \ 
Sea  wmcr 

/tiXCT.  . . . 

boilinp  point,  212°  F 
ut           212    " 

boiling'  point,  210°  F 
al           210     " 

.  (  clastic 

1       • 

force,    30 

'             23 

32 

'             21 

inches. 

.05      " 

I'atrr.  . , , 

.5        " 

'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

.0        " 

PROPERTIES  OF  STEAM. 


195 


PRODUCTION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  STEAM. 

When  water  in  a  vessel  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire,  it  readily  im- 
bibes the  heat  or  fluid  principle  of  which  the  fire  is  the  immediate  cause, 
and  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  intensity'  of  the  heat,  attains  a  tempe- 
rature of  21  i**  Fahrenheit.  If  at  this  point  of  temperature  the  «atcr  be 
not  enclosed,  but  exposed  to  atmospheric  pressure,  ebullition  wil'  take 
place,  and  steam  or  vapor  will  ascend  throufih  the  water,  carryins:  with  it 
the  superabundant  heat,  or  that  which  the  water  cannot  under  such  circum- 
stances of  pressure  absorb,  to  be  retained  and  to  indicate  a  higher  teinpera- 
tUre. 

Water^  in  attaining  the  aeriform  state,  is  thus  uniformly  confined  to  the 
same  laws  nnderevery  degree  of  pressure  ;  but  as  the  pressure  is  augmented, 
so  is  the  indicated  temperature  proportionately  elevated  :  hence  the  various 
densities  of  steam,  and  corresponding  degrees  of  elastic  force. 

The  preceding  Table  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  estimating  the  power  of 
steam  engines  on  the  condensing  principle,  because  in  such  the  efft-ctive 
force  of  tlie  steam  is  the  difl^erence  between  the  total  force  and  the  resisting 
vapour  retained  in  the  condenser.  The  following  Table  is  more  adapted 
for  estimating  the  effects  of  non-condensing  engines,  as,  in  such,  the  atmo- 
spheric pressure  is  not  generally  taken  into  account,  engines  of  this  principle 
being  supposed  to  work  in  a  medium;  or,  the  atmospheric  pressure  on  the 
boiler,  to  cause  a  greater  density  of  steam,  is  equal  to  the  resisting  atmo- 
sphere which  the  effluent  steam  has  to  contend  with  on  leaving  the  cylinder. 

Table  of  the  Elastic  Force  of  Steam,  the  Pressure  of  the  Atmosphere  not 

being  included. 


Elastic  Force  in 


Atmospliere. 

lbs.  square  inch 

1.1'J 

2.5 

1.22 

3 

1.29 

4 

1.36 

5 

1.70 

10 

2.04 

15 

2.-38 

20 

8.72 

25 

3.06 

30 

3.40 

35 

3.74 

40 

4.08 

45      • 

4.42 

50 

4.76 

55 

5.10 

60 

inch,  of  Mer. 


Temperature  [  Volume  of 
in  degrees  of  Steam    Water 
Fahr.        I      being  1. 


5.15 

CIS 

S.24 

10.3 

20.6 

30.9 

412 

51.0 

61.8 

72.1 

82.4 

92.7 

103.0 

113.3 

123.G 


230 
222 
225 
223 
2.40 
251 
2150 
268 
275 
282 
288 
294 
299 
304 
309 


1496 

1453 

1.366 

12S2 

1044 

853 

767 

678 

609 

553 

506 

468 

435 

407 

382 


Cubic  in.  of 

"Water  in  a 

cubic  foot  of 

Steam. 


1.14 
1,18 
1.25 
1..33 
1.64 
1.93 
2.23 
2.52 
2.8 1 
3.09 
3.38 
3.6G 
3.93 
4.20 
4.43 


Steam,  independent  of  the  heat  indicated  by  an  immersed  thermometer, 
also  contains  heat  that  cannot  be  measured  by  any  inslrument  at  present 
known,  and,  in  consequence  of  which,  is  termed  latent  or|concealcd  heat  •,  the 
only  positive  proof  we  have  of  its  existence  being  that  of  incontestable  re- 
sults or  effects  produced  on  various  bodies.  Thus,  if  one  part  by  weight  of 
steam  at  212°  be  mixed  with  nine  parts  of  water  at  62*^,  the  result  is  water 
at  178  6°  ;  therefore,  each  of  the  nine  parts  of  water  has  received  from  the 
steam  IIGG"  of  heat,  and  consequently  the  steam  has  diffused  or  given  out 
UG.G  X  9  =  10494  —  33.4  =  1016°  o"f  heat  which  it  must  have  contained. 
Again,  it  is  ascertained  by  experiment,  that  if  one  gallon  of  water  be  trans- 
formed into  steam  at  212",  and  that  steam  allowed  to  mix  with  water  at  52°, 
the  whole  will  be  raised  to  the  boiling  point,  or  2 12".  From  these  and  other 
experiments,  it  is  ascertained  that  the  latent  heat  in  steam  varies  from  940" 


196 


CONSUMPTION    OF  COAL. 


to  1044°,  the  ratio  oT  accumulation  advancing  from  212°, as  the  steam  be- 
comes more  dense  and  of  greater  elastic  force  5  hence  the  severity  of  a  scald 
by  steam  to  tliat  by  boihiig  water. 

The  rules  formed  by  experimenters  as  corresponding  with  the  results  of 
their  experiments  on  tlie  elastic  force  of  steam  at  given  temperatures  vary, 
but  appro.ximate  so  closely  that  the  following  rule,  because  of  being  simple, 
may  in  practice  be  taken  in  preference  to  any  otiier. 

lirt/e. — To  the  temperature  of  the  steam  in  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  add 
100.  divide  the  sum  by  177,  and  the  6th  power  of  the  quotient  equals  the  force 
in  inches  of  mercury. 

Ex.  Required  the  force  of  steam  corresponding  to  a  temperature  of  312°, 

312  -f  100  ~  111  —  2.o27"  =  h')d  inches  of  mercury. 

But  the  Table  is  much  belter  adapted  to  practical  purposes,  as  the  vari- 
ous results  or  effects  are  obtained  simply  by  inspection. 


CONSUMPTION   OF  COAL. 

TABLE  for  finding  the  CONSUMPTION  of  COAL  per  Hour  in  Stcamera 
either  Paddle  or  Screw  (the  same  Screw  being  used  throughout,)  at 
any  Kate  of  Speed,  the  Consumption  lor  a  particular  Rate  being  known. 
(At  a  given  Amount  of  Cord,  the  Engineer  may  determine  tiie  most  pru- 
dent Rate  of  Engine  for  reaching  next  coaling  Port.) — Engineer's  and 
Contractor's  Pocket  Book,  London. 


Speed. 

Consumption 

of  Coal. 

Speed. 

Consumption 
of  Coal. 

Explanation. 

3 

.216 

9 

5.83 

3  1-2 

.3 13 

9  1-2 

6.86 

The  speed  for  the  consump- 

4 

.512 

10         1 

8.00 

tion  of  a  unit  of  coal  is  sup- 

4 1-2 

.729 

10  1-2 

'     9.26 

posed  here  to  be  5,  which  may 

5 

1 .000 

11 

10.65 

'  be  5  miles  or  knots,  or  5  times 

5  1-2 

1  .;i.ii 

11  1-2 

1'2.15 

any  number  of  miles  or  knots  ; 

i; 

1  728 

12 

13.82 

then   if  5  of  sudi  number  of 

6  1-2 

2.197 

12  1-2 

15.61 

miles  require    1   unit  of  coal 

7 

274I. 

13 

17  58 

per  hour.  9  of  such  units  will, 

7  1-2 

3.375 

13  1-2 

19.08 

jy  the  table,  retiuirc  5.83  units 

8 

4.096 

14 

2195 

of  coal,  and   3  of  them  .21& 

8  1-2 

4.910 

units  of  coal. 

It  will  be  evident  that  this  Table  is  calculated  on  the  principle  that  the 
horse  power  varies  very  nearly  as  tlie  cube  of  the  speed  ;  the  enormous  in- 
crease of  consumption  at  increased  velocities  is  in  liict  a  little  greater  than 
that  shown  by  the  Table. 

The  advantages  indicated  above  to  be  obtained  at  low  velocities  arc 
evidently  independent  of  those  obtained  at  those  velocities  by  using  the 
steam  expansively.  

EVAPORATIVE  POWER  OF  COAL  AND  RESULTS  OF  COKING. 

Under  the  authority  of  an  Act  of  the  American  Congress,  approved  Sept. 
11,  1841,  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  was  conducted  by  Prof  .fohn- 
son  upon  the  evaporative  power  of  sevi'ral  kinds  of  coal.  The  number  of 
samples  tried  was  41 ,  including  9  anthracites  from  Pennsylvania;  12  free- 
burning  or  semi-bituniinous  coals;  II  biluminons  from  \ir";inia;  (i  foreign 
bituminous  coals,  viz.  1  from  Sydney,  Nova  Scotia,  sent  by  llie  Cuniird  (.'oal 
Mming  Company;  1  of  Pictou  Coal,  sent  by  tin;  same  ;  I  ol'Scolch;  1  of 
Newcastle ;  1  ol  Liverpool ;  and  1  of  Piclou.     From  one  to  six  trials  were 


EVAPORATIVE   POWER   OF    COAL. 


197 


made  on  each  sample,  the  average  ciuantity  used  per  trial  being  978  lbs.  The 
experiments  occupied  144.  days,  during  each  of  which  continuous  obser- 
vations were  made  during  12  or  14  hours. 

The  coals  were  burnt  under  a  steam  boiler,  fitted  with  apparatus  for  com- 
plete regulation,  the  supply  of  water  and  coals  being  determined  both  by 
weight  and  measure. 

The  standard  adopted  to  measure  the  heating  power  of  each  tind  of  coal 
was  the  weight  of  water  which  a  given  weight  of  each  evaporated  from  the 
temperature  of  212^  Fahr. 

The  following  Table  gives  the  results  of  five  comparisons  in  each  of  which 
that  coal  which  ranks  the  highest  is  stated  as  1000,  and  the  others  in  deci- 
mal parts  of  the  integer. 


Comparison  Comparison 

Comparison 

Comparison  Comparison 

1.                      2. 

t. 

. 

4. 

5. 

3 
O 

■a  t»> 

0)            CI  o 

EC 

o  o 

Si 

es 

s 

£•9 

ll 

4 

O 

Cm 
O 

tn 

CO 

Kinds  of   Coal. 

'si 

fir" 
GS 

11, 

evaporativ 
I  weights  of 

oir  steam  f 
d  by  1  cubi 

2° 

ll 

i 

quired  to  b 
steady  ac 

i 
t 

II 

O  OJ 

a 

'p. 
£  . 

11 
.11 

Pounds 
water  at 
of  fuel. 

Relative 
for  equa 

Pounds 
produce 
each. 

Relative 
for  equa 

u  a 

> 

Time  re 
boiler  to 
hours. 

li 

it 

ll 

5    >» 

Anthracites  : 

Atkinson  and 
Terapleman's  ) 

10  70 

1.000  566.2  I.OOO 

1 

7.96 

.633 

0.99 

.505 

5.1 

.725 

52.92 

Beaver   Alea-  i 
dow  (No.  5).  J 
Bituminous  and 

9.38 

.923  556.1 

.982 

6.74 

.748 

2.42 

2.07 

6.12 

.060 

56.19 

free  burning : 

Newcastle     . 

8.66 

.809  439.6'  .776 

5.68 

.887 

0.84 

.595 

10.7 

.346 

.50.82 

Pictou  .     .     . 

HA-i 

.792  417.9    .738 

12.06 

.418 

0.85 

.588 

3.7 

i.noo 

49.25 

Liverpool 

7.84 

.733  375.4    .663 

504 

1.000 

0.86 

.581 

11  1 

.333 

47.88 

Cannelton,  (In) 

7.34 

.636  348.8    .616 

5.12 

.984 

0.50 

1 .000 

6,4 

.578 

47.65 

Scotch       .     . 

6.9.5 

.649  353.8    .625 

10.10 

.499 

0.96 

..•)21 

5.7 

.649 

51.05 

Dry  pine  wood.     4.69 

.436    98  6    .475 

0.307 

16.417 

The  same  report  states  some  results  of  coke-burning,  from  which  it  ap- 
pears that  by  burning  in  uncovered  heaps,  and  only  covering  up  the  ignited 
mass  when  flame  ceases  to  be  emitted  (as  in  many  of  the  iron  works  of 
Great  Britain,  France,  &c.),  the  loss  in  weight  at  Plymouth  has  been  found 
to  be  17  per  cent. ;  at  Penn-y-darran,  20  per  cent. ;  and  at  Dowlais  Cwhere 
it  may  be  presumed  the  abundance  of  coal  admits  of  an  uneconomical  man- 
agement), 34:  per  cent.  By  coking  in  stacks,  or  well  covered  heaps  of  coal 
from  10  to  15  ft.  diameter,  as  followed  in  Staffordshire,  highly  bituminous 
coals  lose  from  50  to  55  pr.  ct.  weight,  and  those  of  a  drier  nature  from  35  to  40. 

By  coking  in  close  ovens,  a  coal  which,  in  an  uncovered  heap,  yields  only 
45  to  59  per  cent.,  yields  69  per  cent.  In  the  close  oven  the  gain  in  bulk  is 
from  22  to  S!3  per  cent.  ;  and  while  highly  bituminous  coals  yield  only  40  to 
45  percent,  in  open  heaps,  and  actually /ose  in  hulk,  \hey  yield  in  close 
ovens  from  G5  to  66  per  cent.,  and  gain  in  bulk.  By  coking  fn  gas  retorts, 
the  Deane  Coal  of  Cumberland  gains  nearly  30  per  cent,  in  bulk,  and  loses 
in  weight  25  per  cent.  Carlisle  coal  nearly  the  same.  Cannel  and  Cardiff 
coals  gain  30  per  cent,  in  bulk,  and  lose  36.5  in  weight.  Bewick's  Wallsend 
loses  30,  and  Russell's  Wallsend,  30.7  per  cent,  by  the  same  process. 

17* 


198  POV/ER    OF    STEAM. 


POWER    OF    STEAM. 

Mr.  Trcdgold  gives  the  following-  Table,  which  will  show  how  the  power 
of  tlie  steam  as  it  issues  from  the  boiler,  is  distributed. 

IN    A    NON-CONDENSING    ENGINE. 

Let  the  pressure  on  the  boiler  be    10.000 

Force  required  to  produce  motion  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  will  be  O.OiiO 

Loss  by  cooling  in  the  cylinder  and  pipes O.IGO 

Loss  by  friction  of  the  piston  and  waste 2.000 

Force  required  to  expel  the  steam  into  the  atmosphere 0.0G9 

Force  expended  in  opening  the  valves,  and  friction  oftlie  various  parts  0.G23 

Loss  by  the  steam  being  cut  oiTbefore  the  end  of  the  stroke 1.000 

Amount  of  deductions  3.920 

Effective  pressure 6.060 

IN   A    CONDENSING    ENGINE. 

Let  the  pressure  on  the  boiler  be 10.000 

Force  required  to  produce  motion  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder 0.070 

Loss  by  cooling  in  the  cylinder  and  pipes 0.160 

Loss  by  friction  of  the  piston  and  waste 1.250 

Force  required  to  expel  the  steam  through  the  passages 0.070 

Force  required  to  open  and  close  the  valves,  raise  the  injection 

water,  and  overcome  the  friction  of  the  axes 0.630 

Loss  by  the  steam  being  cut  off  before  the  end  of  the  stroke 1.000 

Power  required  to  work  the  air  pump 0.500 

Amount  of  deductions  3.680 

Effective  pressure 6.320 

If  wc  now  suppose  n  cylinder  whose  diameter  is  21  inches,  the  area  of  this 
cylinder  and  consequently  tiie  area  of  the  piston  in  scjuare  inches,  will  be, 

24"  X  .7854  =  452.39 

Let  us  also  make  the  supposition  that  sloam  is  admitted  into  the  c^dinder 
of  such  power  as  exerts  an  cfTeclivc  pressure  on  the  piston  of  12  lbs.  to  the 
square  inch  ;  therefore,  4-52.39X12  =  5128.08  lbs.,  the  whole  force  with 
which  the  piston  is  pressed.  If  wc  now  suppose  that  the  Icnnlh  of  the  stroke 
is  five  feet,  and  the  engine  makes  44  single  or  22  double  strokes  in  a  minute, 
then  the  piston  will,  move  through  a  space  of  22  X  5  X  2  =  220  foot  in  a 
minute ;  the  power  of  the  engine  being  equivalent  to  a  weight  of 5428  lbs. 
raised  through  220  feet  in  a  minute. 

This  is  the  most  certain  measure  of  ihc  powor  of  a  steam  engine.  It  is 
usual,  however,  to  estimate  the  ed'cct  as  e(|uivalenl  to  the  power  of  so  many 
horses.  This  method,  liowever  siini)lc  and  naturnl  it  may  appear,  is  yet, 
from  (lifTereuccs  of  opinion  as  to  the  power  of  a  horse,  not  very  accurate ; 
and  its  employment  in  calculation  can  only  be  accounted  for  on  the  ground, 
that  when  steam  engines  were  first  employed  to  drive  machinery,  they  were 
substituted  instead  of  liorses  ;  and  it  becanic  tlius  necessary  to  eslimate  what 
size  of  a  steam  engine  would  give  a  power  e<]nal  to  so  many  horses. 

'J'liere  arc  various  opinions  as  to  the  power  of  a  liorsc.  According  to 
Smeaton,  a  horse  will  raise  22,'JIG  lbs.  one  foot  iiigh  in  a  minute.  Doaagu- 
licrs  makes  the  number  27,500;  and  Watt  makes  it  larger  still,  that  is  lU.OOO. 
Thcre.is  reason  to  believe  that  oven  this  nnndicr  is  too  small,  and  that  we 
may  add  at  least  11,000  to  it,  which  g'vcs  41,000  lbs.  raised  one  fool  higli 
per  minute. —  drier. 


RULES    AND    TABLES 


FOR 


GAUGING,    ULLAGING,    &c 


GAUGING    OF   CASKS. 


201 


GAUGING    OF    CASKS. 

In  takinc;  the  dimensions  of  a  Cask  it  must  be  carefully  observed  : 
1st,  That  the  bung-hole  be  in  the  middle  of  the  cask;  2d,  That  the 
bung-stave,  and  the  stave  opposite  to  the  bung-hole,  are  both  regular 
and  even  within;  3d,  That  the  heads  of  the  Cask  are  equal,  and 
truly  circular;  if  so,  the  distance  between  the  inside  of  the  chime  to 
the  outside  of  the  opposite  stave  will  be  the  head  diameter  within 
the  Cask,  very  near. 

Rule. — Take,  in  inches,  the  inside  diameters  of  a  Cask  at  the 
Head  and  the  Bung,  and  also  the  Length;  subtract  the  head -diameter 
from  the  bung-diameter,  and  note  the  difference. 

If  the  measure  of  the  Cask  is  taken  outside,  with  callipers,  from 
head  to  head,  then  a  deduction  must  be  made  of  from  1  to  2  inches 
for  the  thickness  of  the  heads,  according  to  the  size  of  the  Cask. 

1  1/  the  stave.i  of  the  Cask,  between  the  bung  and  the  head,  are 
considerably  curved,  (the  shape  of  a  Pipe),  multiply  the  difference 
between  the   bung  and  head,  by  .7. 

2  If  the  staves  be  of  a  medium  curve,  (the  shape  of  a  Molasses 
Hogshead),  multiply  the  difference  by  .65. 

3.  1/  the  staves  curve  very  little,  (less  than  a  Molasses  Hogs- 
head), multiply  the  difference  by  .6. 

4.  If  the  staves  are  nearly  straight,  (almost  a  Cylinder),  mul- 
tiply the  difference  by  .55. 

5.  Add  the  product,  in  each  case,  to  the  head-diameter ;  the  sum 
will  be  a  mean  diameter,  and  thus  the  Cask  is  reduced  to  a  cylinder. 

6.  Multiply  the  mean  diameter  by  itself,  and  then  by  the  length, 
and  multiply  if  for  Wine  gallons,  by  .0034.  The  difference  of  dividing 
by  294  (the  usual  method),  and  multiplying  by  .0034  (the  most  ex- 
peditious method),  is  less  than  500ths  of  a  gallon  in  100  gallons. 

EXAMPLE. 

Supposing  the  Head-Diameter  of  a  Cask  to  be  24  inches,  the  Bung- 
Diameter  32  inches,  and  the  Length  of  Cask  40  inches;  What  is  the 
content  in  Wine  Gallons  ?  1st  variety. 

Bung-Diameter,    32  brought  up        876.16 

24  Length,  40 

~8  35046.40 

.7  .0034 


Head-Diameter, 

Difference, 
Multiplier, 


5.6 
Head-Diam.,      24 

multiply    29.6 
by         29.6 

carry  up         Square,     876.16 


14018560 
10513920 

119.157760 


Jlns.     119  galls.  1  pint. 


To  obtain  the  contents  of  a  similar  Cask  in  Ale  Gallons,  multiply 
35046.40  by  .0027S5,  and  we  get  97.6042,  (or  97  gallons  5  pints.) 


202 


GAUGING   OF   CASKS. 


GAUGING   OF    CASKS    IN    IMPERFAL    (BRITISH)    GALLONS. 
AND    ALSO    IN    UNITED    STATES    GALLONS. 

Having  ascertained  the  variety  of  the  Cask,  and  its  interior  dimen- 
sions, the  following  Table  will  facilitate  the  calculation  of  its  capacity. 

Table  of  the   Capacities  of   CasJ:s,  ivhose  Bung  Diameters   and 
Lengths  are  1  or  Unity. 


n.   1st  Var.  2d  Var.  3d  Yar.  ■ith  Var. 


.50 

.51 

.5-2 

.53 

.54 

.5.5 

.5(i 

.5/ 

.53' 

.59 

.OU 

.GI 

.6> 

m 

.01 
.G.J 
.00 
.07 
.03 
.09 
.70 

^ 
.73 
.74 
.75 


.00212441 
.0021310 
.0021 I37I 
.0021530' 
.0021037 
.0021740 

0021315 
.0021951 
.0022000; 
.0022170' 
.0022233! 
.00223971 
.00225 13i 
.0022031' 
.0022751 
.0022373; 
.00229971 
.002;3122 
.00232.)0 
.0023379! 
.0023510 
.00230431 
.0023778 
.002:3915 
.0021051! 
.0024195 


.0020300 

.0020433 

.0020507 

.0020702 

.0020333 

.0020975 

.0021114 

.0021253 

.0021394 

.0021530' 

.0021079 

,0021323' 

.0021903 

.0022114 

.0022202 

.0022110 

.0022500 

.002271 1 

.0022303 

.0023010 

.0023170 

.0023320 

.0023432 

.002)040 

.0023799 

.00239.59 


.0017704 
.0017347 
.0017993 
.0018141 
.0018293 
.0013447 
.0013004 
.0018704 
.0018927 
.0019093 
.0019201 
.0019433 
.0019007 
.0019784 
.0019901 
.0(120147 
.0020332 
.0020.521 
.0020712 
.0020900 
.0021103 
.0021302 
.0021.505 
.0021710 
.0021913 
.0022129 


.0010523 
.0010713 
.0010905 
.0017098 
.0017294 
.0017491 
.0017090 
.0017391 
.0018094 
.0013299 
.0018500 
.0018715 
.0018925 
.0019133 
.0019352 
.0019503 
.0019730 
.0020000 
.0020228 
.0020452 
0020073 
.0020905 
.0021135 
.0021306 
.002)599 
.0021834 


II.  1st  Var.  2d  Var.  I  3d  Var.  I  4tli  Var. 


.70 
.77 

.73 
.79 
.80 
.81 
.82 
'33 
.84 
.85 
.80 
.87 
.38 
.89 
.90 
.91 
.92 
.93 
.94 
.95 
.90 
.97 
.98 
.99 
1. 00 


.0024337 
.0024482 
.0024023 
.0024777 
.0024927 
.0025079 
.0025233 
.0025383 
.0025540 
.0025700 
.0025307 
.0020030 
.0020190 
.0020303 
.0020532 
.0()2(i703 
.O020'<75 
.0027050 
.0027227 
.0027405 
.0027535 
.0027703 
.0027952 
.0023133 
.0023320 


.0024120 
0024232 
.0024445 
.0024010 
.0024770 
.0021942 
.0025110 
.0025279 
.0025449 
.0025021 
.0025793 
.0025907 
.0020141 
.0020317 
.0020491 
.002(5072 
.0020351 
.0027032 
.0027213 
.0027390 
.0027579 
.0027704 
.0027950 
.0028137 
,0028320 


.0022343 
.0022500 
.00227.-0 
.0023002 
.0023227 
0023155 
.00231)30 
.0(I2:>920 
.00241.56 
.0024390 
.0024033 
.0021333 
.0025131 
.002.5331 
.0025035 
.0025-91 
.0020150 
.0020412 
.0020077 
.0020945 
.0027215 
.00274.39 
.0027705 
.0028044 
.0023320 


.0022071 
.002a310 
.0022551 
.002279  4 
.002:3033 
.0023285 
.002:S533 
.0023733 
.0024035 
.0024269 
.0024545 
.0024803 
.0025003 
.0025324 
.00255'-3 
.0025-5:3 
.0021120 
.0020389 
.0020000 
.0020933 
.0027208 
.0027484 
.0027703 
.0023013 
.0023320 


Divide  the  head  by  the  hung  diameter,  and  opposite  the  quotient 
in  the  column  II,  and  under  its  proper  variety,  is  the  tahular  number 
for  unity.  Multiply  the  tabular  number  by  the  square  of  the  bung 
diameter  of  the  given  cask,  and  by  its  length,  the  product  equals  its 
capacity  in  Imperial  gallons. 

Required  the  number  of  Gallons  in  a  Cask,  {\st  variety,')  21  inches 
head  diameter,  32  bung  diameter,  and  -10  inches  in  length  i 
■  32)  2 1.0  (.75  see  Table  for  tabular  No. 

.002419.5  tabular  No.  for  unity. 

82  X  32  is   1024  square  of  bung  diam. 


ytnso 

4S390 
24195 

2.4775(J80 

40  Inches  long. 

99.1027200  Imperial  Gallons. 
1.2 


Note.  —  Mulliply- 
ing  Imperial  gallons  by 
one  &.  two-tenths  (1.2) 
will  convert  them  into 
U.S.  gallons;  and  U.  S. 
gallons  multiplied  by 
■8.33  equal  Imperial 
gallons. 


1982054400 
991027200 


I18.9232(JI00  United  States  Gallons. 


ULLAGE    OF   CASKS.  203 

TO    ULLAGE,    OR    FIND    THE     CONTEXTS     IN     GALLONS 
OF    A    CASK    PARTLY    FILLED. 

To  find  the  contents  of  the  occupied  part  of  a  lying  cask  in  gallons. 

Rule. — Divide  the  depth  of  the  liquid,  or  wet  inches,  by  the  bung 
di;inietcr,  and  if  the  quotient  is  under  .5  deduct  from  the  quotient  one- 
fourth  of  what  it  ii  less  than  .5,  and  multiply  tlic  remainder,  by  the 
whole  capacity  of  the  cask,  this  product  will  be  the  number  of  gallons 
in  the  cask.  But  if  the  quotient  exceeds  .5,  add  one-fourth  of  that 
excess  to  the  quotient,  and  multiply  the  sum,  by  the  whole  capacity 
of  the  cask,  this  product  will  be  the  number  of  gallons. 

Example  i. — Suppose  the  bung-diameter  of  a  cask,  on  its  bilge, 
is  32  inches,  and  the  whole  contents  of  the  cask  118.80  U.  S.  standard 
gallons;  requiied  the  ullage  of  15  wet  inches. 

32)  15.00  (.46875      .5  — .46875=  .03125 -4- 4  =  .0078125      .46875  — 
.0078125  =.4609375  X  118.80  =  54.759375  U.  S.  Gallons. 

Example  ii. — Required  the  ullage  of  17  wet  inches  in  a  cask  of 
the  above  capacity  ? 

32)  17.00  (.53125  — .5  =  .03125 -=-4  =  .0078125+  .53125  =  .5390625 
X  118.80  =  64.040625  U.  S.  Gallons. 

Proof  —  64-040625  +  54-759375  =  118-80  gallons. 

To  find  the  ullage  of  a  filled  part  of  a  standing  Cask,  in  gallons. 

Rule. — Divide  the  depth  of  the  liquid,  or  wet  inches,  by  the 
length  of  the  cask;  then,  if  the  quotient  is  less  than  .5,  deduct  from 
the  quotient  one-tenth  of  what  it  is  less  than  .5  and  multiply  the  re- 
mainder, by  the  whole  capacity  of  the  cask,  this  product  will  be  the 
number  of  gallons.  But  if  the  quotient  exceeds  .5,  add  one-tenth  of 
that  excess  to  the  quotient,  and  multiply  the  sum,  by  the  whole  capac- 
ity of  the  cask,  this  product  will  be  the  ullage,  or  contents  in  U.  S. 
standard  gallons. 

Example. — Suppose  a  cask,  40  inches  in  length,  and  the  capacity 
118.80  gallons,  as  above:  required  the  ullage  of  21  wet  inches? 

40)  21.000  (.525  — .5  =  .025-=- 10=  .0025+  .525=. 5275  X  IIS.SO 
=  62.667  U.  S.  Gallons. 


Note. — Formerly  the  British  V/inc  and  Ale  Gallon  measures  were  sim- 
ilar  to  ihose  now  used  in  the  United  States  and  British  Colonies. 

Ttie  following  Tables  exhibit  the  comparative  value  between  the  United 
States  and  the  present  British  measures. 


TJ.  S.  measure  for  British  (Im.)  measure. 

wine,  spirits,  &c.  galls,  qts.  j>ts.  gills. 

4-2  gulls.  =  •  lierce,  =  34      3      13 
63  =1   lio-!sh.  =  .5'2      113 

120  =  1  pipe,  =  104      3      13 

252  =1  tun,    =209     3      1     2 


U.  S.  measure  for  British  (Im.)  measure. 

ale  and  beer.  sails,  qts.  pts.  gills. 

9  galls. =  1  firkin,  ="    9     0      1      1 

30  =1  b;irrel,=   36     2      0      3 

54  =1  liogsh.  =   54     3      1      1 

108  =1  bult,     =109     3      0     3 


To  convert  Imperial  Gallons  into  United  States  Wine  Gallons  multiply  the  im- 
perial by  1-2.  To  convert  U.  S.  Gallons  into  Imperial  multiply  the  U.  Slates 
Wine  gallons  by  -feSS. 

51  U.  S.  Ale  Gnllons  equal  60  Imperial  Gallons,  therefore  to  convert  one  into 
other  add  or  deduct  1-COth. 


204     PLOUGHING,   PLANTING. — WEIGHT    OF   WOOD,    &C. 


PLOUGHING. 

Tabic  showing  the  distance  Travelled  by  a  horse  in  Ploughing  an  Acre  of 
L-and  ;  also,  the  quantit}'  of  Land  worked  in  a  Day,  at  the  rate  of  16 
and  18  miles  per  day  of  9  hours. 


B'dth  of 
Furrow 

Spaco  travel- 
led in  Ploush- 

Extent  rioughed 

B'dth  of 
Furrow 

Space  travel- 
led in  IMoueh- 

Extent  Ploughed 

Elice. 

ing  an  Acre. 

slice 

ing  an  Acre. 
Miles. 

Inches. 

Miles. 

18  Miles. 

16  Miles. 

Inches. 

18  Miles. 

iO  Miles. 

7 

14  1-2 

11-4 

11-8 

14 

7 

2  1-2 

2  1-4 

8 

12  1-2 

1  1-2 

1  1-4 

15 

6  1-2 

2  3-4 

22  5 

9 

11 

13-5 

1  1-2 

10 

6  1-G 

2  9-10 

2  3-5 

10 

9  9-10 

14-5 

13-5 

17 

5  3-4 

3  1-10 

2  3-4 

11 

9 

2 

1  3-4 

18 

5  1-2 

3  1-4 

2  9-10 

12 

8  1-4 

2  1-5 

19-10 

19 

5  1-4 

3  1-2 

3  1-10 

13 

7  1-2 

2  1-3 

2  1-10 

20 

4  9-10 

3  1-5 

3  1-4 

PLANTING. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  Plants  required  for  one  Acre  of  Land,  from 
one  Toot  to  Twenty-one  Feet  disicmce  from  Plant  to  Plant. 


Feet          No.  of 

Feet 

No.  of 

Feet 

No.  of 

Feet 

No.  of)     Feet 

No.  of 

Distance.      Hill-. 

Distance 

Hills. 

Distance. 

Hills. 

Distance. 

Hills. 

Distance 

Hills 

1         43, .560 

4 

2,722 

7 

889 

10 

436 

17 

151 

Ij^       19,360 

4.^ 

2,151 

ih 

775 

lOi 

361 

18 

135 

2         10,890 

5 

1,742 

8 

680 

12 

302 

20 

108 

2.i         6,969 

5.^ 

1,440 

sh 

C02 

14 

223 

21 

99 

3           4,840 

6 

1,210 

9 

538 

15 

193 

25 

69 

3^         3,556 

fi-i 

1,031 

94 

482 

1.6 

171 

30 

48 

WEIGHT   OF    A   CORD    OF    WOOD. 

Table  of  the  Weight  of  a  Cord  of  different  kinds  of  Dry  Wood,  and  the 
comparative  vahie  per  Cord. 


A  Cord  of  Hickory,      -    -  4469 

poun 

ds, 

- 

- 

Carbon  -  - 

100 

Maple,    -     -     -  2863 

- 

- 

*'.      -  - 

54 

Wliile  Birch,   -  2360 

- 

- 

"       -  - 

48 

"       Beech,  -  3236 

- 

- 

"       -  - 

65 

"      Ash,  -   -  3450 

- 

- 

"       -  - 

77 

Pitch  Pine,  -   -  1904 

- 

- 

"       -  - 

43 

White  Pine,     -  1868 

- 

- 

" 

42 

Lombard  V  Poplar  1774 

- 

- 

" 

40 

While  Oak  -    -  3821 

- 

- 

"       -  - 

HI 

Yellow  Oak,     -  2919 

- 

- 

"       -  - 

(iO 

.  Red  Oak,     -    -  3254 

- 

- 

"       -  - 

09 

Note.  — Nearly  oiii;  lialf  of  tlie  weight  of  a  ijrowhipr  Oak  tron  consists   of 
sap.     Oriliiiary  Dry  Wood  contains  about  one-fourtli  of  its  wciijlil  in  water. 

CHAIICOAL. 
Oak,    Maple,  Hecch,  and   Chostnnt   make   llie   best  qiialilj.     Do- 
twccn  15  and  17  per  cent,  of  coal  can  be  obtained  when  tlie  %von(l  is 
propcM-ly  l)nine(!.      A  bnsliel  of  coal  (Voiii  Iini-d  wood  wi  ii;hs  between 
29  and  31  lbs.,  and  Iroin  lioni  pine  between  28  and  3U  lbs. 


ADDITION    TO    TINMAN'S    MANUAL. 


TINMAN'S    TWELVE     POUND     BILL, 

OR    BILL    OF    DAY'S    WORK 


No.  of  Articles  for  Day's  Work.  12  lb. 

16  Sixteen  quart  Large  Dish 

Kettles, 84 

10  Water  Pots, 75 

18  Twelve  quart  Pails, 67 

18  Large  Dish  Kettles, 67 

20  Foot  Stoves, 67 

24  Ten  quart  Pails, 58 

24  Ten  quart  Pans, 68 

18  Gallon  Coffee  Pots, 58 

18  Six  quart  Covered  Pails, .  58 

18  Large  Sauce  Pans, 58 

24  Gallon  Measures, 39 

30  Six  quart  Pails, 39 

36  Common  Size  Milk  Pans, .  39 

20  Large  AVash  Bowls, 39 

20  Lanterns, 39 

24  Small  Dish  Kettles,  six  qt.  39 

20  Cullenders, 39 

24  Three  quart  Coffee  Pots, .  39 

24  Large  Pudding  Bags, ...  39 

24  Roasters, 39 

40  Lantern  Pans, 36 

24  Two  quart  Coffee  Pots, . ,  34 

20  Three  qt.  Covered  Pails,  .  34 

24  Small  Wash  Bowls, 34 

24  Small  Sauce  Pans, 34 

30  Half  gallon  Measures, ...  25 

48  Half  gallon  Pans, 25 

24  Half  gallon  Dippers, 25 

36  Half  gallon  Funnels, 25 

30  Thi-ee  pint  Coffee  Pots,  . .  25 

24  Two  quart  Covered  Pails,  25 

86  Large  Blow  Horus, 25 

36  Three  quart  Pails, 25 

48  Round  Pans, 18 

100  Square  Pans, 18 

108  Scollop  Pie  Pans, 18 

48  Sausage  Horns, 18 

86  Quart  Coffee  Pots, 18 

48  Square  Toast  Pans, 18 


No.  of  Articles  for  Day's  Work.  12  lb. 

36  Round  Toast  Pans, 18 

40  Quart  Covered  Pails, 18 

36  Round  Flat   Bottom  Tea 

Pots, 18 

72  Second  Size  Horn, 18 

48  Sailor  Pots, 18 

36  Quart  Lamp  Fillers, 18 

36  Water  Ladles, 18 

36  Sugar  Scoops, 18 

36  Milk  Strainers, 18 

72  Quart  Measures, 14 

48  Large  Skimmers, 14 

72  Quart  Funnels, 14 

72  Small  Horns, 14 

72  Basins, 12 

144  Quart  Scollops, 12 

144  Quart  Grease  Pans, 12 

60  Round  Handled  Dippers,  12 

120  Half  Square  Pans, 10 

84  Half  Sheet  Funnels, 10 

72  Half  Sheet  Dippers, 10 

120  Half  Sheet  Scollops, 10 

96  Pint  Funnels, 8 

84  Pint  Measures, 8 

96  Pint  Cups, 8 

168  Pint  Scollops, 8 

48  Flour  Boxes, 8 

96  Half  Pint  Measures, 5 

108  Half  Pint  Cups, 5 

96  Half  Pint  Dippers, . . 5 

120  Half  Pint  Funnels, 5 

96  Gill  Measures, 5 

48  Blisters, 5 

96  Small  Skimmers, 5 

124  Flat  Candlesticks, 5 

120  Needle  Cases 5 

84  Pepper  Boxes, 5 

120  Hearts, 3 

144  Rounds, 3 

98  Rattle  Boxes, 3 


[The  6  Pound  Bill  is  one-half  of  the  12  Pound  Bill.] 


ADDITION    TO    TINMAN  S    MANUAL. 


No.  of  Articles  for  Day's  Work.  121b. 

12  Six  quart  Coffee  Boilers,  1.00 
12  Five  quart  Coffee  Boilers,  83 
12  Four  quart  Coffee  Boilers,  (37 
12  Three  qt.  (ioffee  Boilers,  50 
12  Two  quart  Coffee  Boilers,  42 
12  Six  quart  Coffee  Pots,. . .   83 

12  Five  quart  Pots, 75 

12  Large  Dutcli  Buckets,.  . . 
12  Small  Dutch  Buckets,. . . 

12  Small  AVater  Pots, 

12  Ten  quart  Covered  Pails,  84 
18  Five  quart  Covered  Pails,  50 
26  Three  pint  Covered  Pails,  20 
30  One  pint  Covered  Pails,..  14 
30  Five  quart  Open  Pails, . .   50 

32  Gall.  Open  Pails, 

40  Three  Pint  Open  Pails,. . 


121b. 


No.  pf  Articles  for  Day's  Work. 

24  Nine  quart  Pans, 

16  Twelve  qt.  Pans,  handles, 
20  Seven  qt.  Pans,  handles, 
36  Five  quart  Straight  Pans, 
40  Two  quart  Straight  Pans, 
48  Three  pint  Straight  Pans, 
20  Handled  Wash  Boards,. . 
18  Twelve  qt.  Dish  Kettles,. 

18  Ten  qt.  Dish  Kettles, 

24  Four  qt.  Dish  Kettles, . . . 

40  Three  pint  Dish  Kettles, . 

Twelve  qt.  Cov.  Buckets,  1.00 

Oak  Leaf  Cake  Cutters, . .   10 

One  quart  Tea  Pots, 34 

One  gallon  Fluid  Cans,. . 
Half  gallon  Fluid  Cans, . . 


80 
50 


39 
67 
58 
39 
18 


1.— WEIGHTS    OF    IRON    WIRE    PER    20    FEET. 
Manufactured  by  Ichabod  Washbukn  &  Moen,  Worcester,  Mass. 


No. 

0. 

.5  lbs. 

No. 

6.. 

.lib. 

14  ozs. 

No. 

12. 

.  9    ozs. 

No. 

1. 

.4  lbs. 

2  ozs. 

No. 

7.. 

.lib. 

10  ozs. 

No. 

13. 

.6    ozs. 

No. 

2. 

.3  lbs. 

8  ozs. 

No. 

8.. 

.1  lb. 

7  ozs. 

No. 

14. 

.5    ozs. 

No. 

3. 

.2  lbs. 

15  ozs. 

No. 

9.. 

.lib. 

2  ozs. 

No. 

15. 

.44  ozs. 

No. 

4. 

.2  lbs. 

8  ozs. 

No. 

10.. 

14  ozs. 

No 

16. 

.3i^  ozs. 

No. 

5. 

.2  lbs. 

5  ozs. 

No. 

11.. 

• 

10  ozs. 

No. 

17. 

.3    ozs. 

2.— WEIGHT    OF    IRON    WIRE    PER    LINEAL    ROD. 


N09. 

Diameter  in  1-100 
of  an  Inch. 

Weight  per 
Lineal  Rod. 

4  lbs.      2  OZS. 

3  "       10     " 

2  "     15    " 
2  "       8    " 
2  "       5    " 
1  "     15    '' 

4  "       9   " 

Nos. 

1  8 
9 

10 

11 

12 
1  13 

Diameter  in  1-100 
of  an  Inch. 

.18 
.16 
.15 
.13 
.12 
.10 

Weight  per 
Lineal  Rod. 

1 

2 
3 
4 

5 
6 

.32 
.30 
.27 
.25 
.24 
.22 

1  lb.     4  OZS. 

1  "      0    " 
0  ««    14    " 
0  "    10    " 
0  "      9    " 
0  ♦«      6    " 

7 

.20 

1 

33  R^  H  A.  T  A.  . 

Page  35. — To  find  tiik  Solidity  of  a  Pyramid  or  Cone. 

Role.— Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height,  and  one-ihird  of  the 
product  will  be  the  solid  eoiilenl. 

ExAMPi-E.— Required  the  solid  conlent  in  inches  of  a  Cone  or  Pyramid,  the 
diameter  of  the  base  being  8  inches,  uiid  perpendicular  height  18  inches  ? 
&X8  =  0IX  .7854X19  =  ''*'>'  "^03^ 3  =301  59.%  inches -^ 2.31  =  1  gall,  li  qts. 

Page  92  No.  38.— For  Tin  61  lbs.  Copper  I  lb.  rtad  Copper  64  lbs.  Tni  1  lb. 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY  CONS 

T  49  B98  1861  *5 

c  1  Butts.  I  R  (Isaac 

The  tinman- s  manual  and  Builder  s  and  me 


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